Preprint: Dousay, T. A. (2015). Digital literacy in elementary and secondary education. In J. M. Spector (Ed.), SAGE Encyclopedia of Educational Technology (pp. 219–221). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
DIGITAL LITERACY IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION Digital literacy as an educational concept began in the mid-20th century with the rise of media studies and the work of Marshall McLuhan, who predicted in the 1960s that technology would forever alter the idea of literacy. The phrase “digital literacy” became more prominent in the 1990s in reference to the skills and knowledge required to read and write in digital environments. Early attempts to define the concept differentiated between conceptual and operational forms; i.e., the psychological processes required to consume and evaluate media versus the technical skills required to produce media. After the introduction of Title II, Part D of the No Child Left Behind Act, educators and industry alike sought to standardize technology skills, identify methods to teach and reinforce technology competency, and ways in which to evaluate digital literacy.
Enhancing Education Through Technology Act Title II, Part D of the No Child Left Behind Act is more commonly known as the Enhancing Education Through Technology Act (EETT), and was intended to improve academic achievement through technology in primary and secondary education. Additional goals of the legislation include ensuring digitally literate children by completion of the eighth grade and encouraging technology integration in schools through financial support, professional development, and research-based teaching methods. Relevant federal guidelines prescribed by EETT include assisting with implementation and support of classroom technology to improve student achievement and assisting with the acquisition, maintenance, and improvement of technology infrastructure with a priority for disadvantaged students.
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Funds provided through EETT to carry out its purpose were distributed to state education agencies based upon a formula that considered existing federal funding and individual, competitive grants. However, the initial allocation for EETT only directed that funds for the initiative be available through 2007. Annual Continuing Resolutions (CRs), issued by Congress, sustained funds to support EETT in subsequent years, ending in 2013. Legislation has since been proposed in both the U.S. House of Representatives and U.S. Senate to reauthorize and continue EETT initiatives, but all bills have thus far been referred to committee with no further action. Although federal education programs to standardize and promote a digitally literate society may no longer provide a source of funding, the importance of digital literacy remains an essential concern for educators.
Digital Literacy in Education With respect to teaching and practicing digital literacy in elementary and secondary schools, there are a number of best practices and activities that have emerged. Many teachers integrate technology into their curriculum as a way to increase motivation and empower students. In an age where children are consistently exposed to media through television, games, and video billboards, interest to sit through a lesson wanes as attention spans vary. Thus, the opportunity to physically interact with technology provides an outlet to express and engage through independent activities. The use of social media, such as Pinterest or Twitter, and integrated learning platforms, such as Edmodo, has provided additional support for teachers to communicate and collaborate, sharing ideas for lessons, activities, and tools to use in the classroom while simultaneously maintaining contact with parents. It is important to note that the types of activities and resources used to introduce and reinforce digital literacy, while similar,
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often vary based upon educational stage; i.e., primary versus secondary, and even grade level.
Primary Education Pre-kindergarten and kindergarten programs often focus on developing motor skills through planned activities using computers and mobile devices. By placing the tools into the hands of children, they are provided with opportunities to interact with and practice basic tasks such as keyboarding and mouse movement. The underlying premise of such methods allows educators to create a foundation that supports using computer games and software to practice letter and number formation or create interactive digital stories that contribute to a broader literacy development. Further possibilities include using equipment and devices to take photographs and video of concepts including shapes, colors, animals, and more to encourage creativity and promote autonomy. The hands-on approach to learning and practicing how to operate devices and mastering how to physically use the tools provides a scaffold for later applications in higher grades. As students advance into upper primary grades, lessons and activities begin to assume more conceptual components. Using interactive whiteboards, software, apps, clickers, devices, and cameras, teachers move students beyond learning how to use the equipment and into how to produce, perceive, interpret, and receive media. School library media specialists work in collaboration with teachers to develop technology activities that complement or supplement content and applications in the classroom. These latter efforts often involve working with children to introduce the basic skills necessary to access information, solve problems, and communicate effectively. For example, a digital story activity requires students to identify relevant images and media and edit the components using a specified tool. Once the digital story is published, the interaction turns into a collaborative and reflective exercise in evaluating the
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artifacts. Similar to the way in which kindergarten activities provided a basis for application in upper primary grades, the skills and tasks described above serve as a foundation for digital literacy extension at the secondary level.
Secondary Education Moving into the secondary classroom, digital literacy instruction delves into distinguishing between sources and interpreting the value of resources as students learn how to analytically apply the digital skills they have acquired. Upon completion of the eighth grade, all students are expected to have mastered digital literacy. From research papers to applied projects, students in junior high and high schools are expected to continuously refine and apply their previously acquired skills. Thus, the high school teacher can explore advanced concepts such as ethical dilemmas, through copyright issues, and critical thinking and problem solving, through complex or applied projects. Ideally, secondary education digital literacy activities are integrated and interdisciplinary in nature, bringing together content and applications from multiple subject areas. The emphasis on digital literacy in secondary grades generally focuses more on conceptual ideas and is extended by way of addressing topics that deal with living and working in a digital, online world, including privacy and security, cyberbulling, collaboration, social media, and more.
Evaluating Digital Literacy In terms of evaluating skills acquired as a result of becoming digitally literate, various private and public organizations have created classroom resources and checklists or certification exams to meet the needs of educators. Major corporations, such as Microsoft®, have created
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online courses and instructor resources to assist educators with incorporating digital literacy evaluation into their curriculum. Example topics from Microsoft® include “Computer Basics,” “The Internet, Cloud Services, and World Wide Web,” “Productivity Programs,” “Digital Lifestyles,” and “Computer Security and Privacy.” Upon completion of all five topics, students may create a personalized certificate to demonstrate their digital proficiency. Similarly, Certiport, Inc. created the Internet and Computing Core Certification, or IC3. The IC3 predates most formal attempts to standardize or prescribe digital literacy education, but was intended as a way to address global needs to recognize digital literacy. The three primary exam areas of the IC3 are “Computing Fundamentals,” “Key Applications,” and “Living Online.” Other resources for parents and educators include Common Sense Media and CyberWise. It should be noted that in the digital age, digital literacy resources and evaluation methods are constantly evolving, under development, or being phased out.
Digital Literacy Challenges The primary and secondary educator faces a number of challenges to integrating digital literacy activities into their curriculum. As noted by the EETT, there are concerns regarding access to technology by underprivileged children and those in geographically remote areas. Providing these resources can prove costly both from initial expense and continued maintenance. With the future of federal funding to support these initiatives in question, it falls upon the school districts and states to devise solutions to meet the financial need. In many cases, educators are turning to increasingly competitive private grants offered by foundations, corporations, and organizations. Related to technology access, the digital divide continues to widen, and teachers and administrators have no way of knowing precisely which students have outside exposure to
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technology tools and which students do not. The result is that teachers must choose between dedicating classroom time to teaching and reinforcing basic skills or moving on to practical applications. There are no easy answers to any of these challenges, but primary and secondary educators must remain diligent in their commitment to creating a digitally literate society. Tonia A. Dousay See also 21st Century Technology Skills; Digital Literacy and Critical Thinking; Digital Literacy, Overview and Definition; Media Literacy; Message Design for Digital Media; Methods for Teaching Digital Literacy Skills; Technology and Information Literacy; Visual Literacy Skills in STEM Education
FURTHER READINGS Common Sense Media. (2014). Digital literacy and citizenship classroom curriculum. Retrieved from http://www.commonsensemedia.org/educators/curriculum CyberWise. (2014). Digital citizenship learning center. Retrieved from http://www.cyberwise.org/Digital-Citizenship-Hub.html Jenkins, H., Clinton, K., Purushotma, R., Robison, A. J., & Weigel, M. (2006). Confronting the challenges of participatory culture: Media education for the 21st century. Chicago: John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation. Microsoft. (2014). Microsoft® digital literacy. Retrieved from http://www.microsoft.com/about/corporatecitizenship/citizenship/giving/programs/up/digita lliteracy/default.mspx
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