EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT
Directorate General for Research-Directorate A STOA - Scientific and Technological Options Assessment
Briefing Note N° 06/2001 PE nr. 297.564
February 2001
GIS FOR SUSTAINABILITY ASSESSMENT USE OF GEOGRAPHYCAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS) FOR A DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM (DSS) TO ASSESS ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
- representing data and the results of data analyses mainly through thematic maps, charts and tables. The main characteristic of a GIS is to manage territorial data with regard to their spatial allocation. A territorial datum is a set of information referred to an object located on the territory, and it is made up by two parts, one referred to geographical information (position and shape), the other to descriptive information (attributes) organised in tables. The two parts are connected by a specific name or code, thus allowing linkage of other information.
Abstract Sustainable development and protection of the environment are major policy issues and are included in many EU directives. As stated in the EU Treaty, environmental issues must be taken into account when formulating and implementing sectorial policies. Sustainable development is a complex issue, involving economic, social and environmental aspects, requiring an integrated approach. Development implies both temporal and spatial processes. However the spatial dimension has often been neglected or been given low priority by groups preparing environmental or sustainable development indicators. A Geographical Information System (GIS) is a tool designed to work with spatial data or data referenced by geographical coordinates. It generally contains a database system for referencing the data and tools for displaying, manipulating and analysing the data. GIS information technologies are efficient and userfriendly tools that enable decision-makers to address problems of environment and development in an integrated manner. GIS integrates biophysical and socio-economic data and can be used to develop alternative strategies for decision-makers to address complex and multi-dimensional problems. For decision-making, planning and management, it is useful to integrate different components of sustainability assessment together. A decision support system (DSS) can be established including physical, social and economic data, models, indicators, and reference thresholds, giving a unique reference framework.
A complex of different objects and phenomena, both natural and anthropogenic makes up the territorial reality. In traditional cartography all these elements are represented together and they are obviously static. A GIS divides reality into different themes (i.e. administrative limits, roads, rivers, cities, forest, etc.), which are displayed in thematic layers (fig. 1.1), each layer including homogeneous geometric elements or information.
1 - Basic facts about GIS
fig. 1.1 - Representation of reality in thematic layers
A Geographical Information System (GIS) is a computer software designed to work with spatial data or data referenced by geographical coordinates. It generally contains a database system for referencing the data and tools for displaying, manipulating and analysing the data. A GIS has three main goals: - acquiring, storing, managing and integrating geographically-referenced data; - providing tools for data analysis, with the help of mathematical models;
The information thus represented is dinamic. These thematic layers can all be made visible at the same time or selectively according to need, and linked together by their geographic location. GIS offers the ability to query data in many ways. Objects may be found based upon particular geographical criteria, or upon attributes. A GIS also provide tools for manipulating data of the same layer or belonging to different layers in order to represent Briefing Note N° 6/2001
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- land cover mapping and classification; - biodiversity mapping and monitoring; - sustainable management of natural resources; - integration, management and analysis of socioeconomic and demographic data for development and planning activities; - preparation, mapping, and analysis of general plans for different levels, such as land use regulatory controls, zoning districts and consistency issues, existing land use, development constraints, and facility locations for local communities; - support of economic development programs, such as managing inventories of available sites suited for industrial and commercial development, and mapping characteristics of the labour force; - quick access to environmental, economical and planning information for the public.
and underline only specific phenomena or relations among elements. The result of these operations and analyses is a thematic map of the spatial variation of the process or feature. GIS offers exceptional display capabilities. Maps can be displayed at various scales and projections, with layers of interest visible and unneeded layers not visible. The map can be adjusted for each user's needs and the same features may be displayed both close up and from afar. Objects may be represented in different ways (by colour or symbols), according to the attributes. GIS serves as an excellent tool to store geographic and spatial information. The database management system (DBMS) of GIS offers a logical way of keeping data or linking data from different sources and database systems, and allows continuous data update. Data for GIS in an informatic support can be obtained in different ways: attributes can be in electronic format provided by research companies or census, or can be derived by monitoring campaigns and field research for a specific aim. Geographical data can be acquired by digitisation of maps and remote sensing techniques.
2 - A DSS for Sustainable Development Chapters 35 and 40 of UNCED Agenda 21 underline the need for the development of new analytical and predictive tools, and sustainable development indicators. There is also a need for better collection and assessment of data and improved co-ordination of environmental, social, demographic and developmental data and information activity to provide a solid basis for decision-making at all levels and to assess the evolution of sustainable development and the impact and effectiveness of policy resolutions. For decision-making, planning, and management, it is useful to integrate different components of sustainability assessment together. A decision support system (DSS) can be established, a combination of information technologies, physical, social and economic data, models, indicators, and reference thresholds, giving a unique reference framework and making the decision process easier.
1.1 - Vector and Raster data models GIS can use two types of data structures to store and display objects: vector models or raster models (fig. 1.2). In raster models the map is divided into grids cells or pixels. Information is then displayed on the map by associating a value for each layer with each and every grid cell. Each cell represents a discrete area. In other words, the grid cell is the unit of observation..
GIS software can be the appropriate tool for this because of its ability to represent geographical data, to store various tables of data and to link with database management information technologies; furthermore it provides tools for data analysis and representation through maps. The ability to present data and indicators in the form of maps greatly facilitates understanding and interpretation for policy makers and the public. The GIS tool enables integration of different steps of the decision-making process: on a technical level, by defining categories and levels to be analysed, identifying causes and consequences of environmental problems and relations between environment and factors of development, by selecting a set of indicators related to the target sectors; and by identifying reference thresholds. On a political level; by harmonising framework and methodologies, by identifying problems and target sectors that must be analysed and by identifying development goals as reference values for decision-making.
fig. 1.2 - Raster (left) and vector (right) data models
In the vector model, objects are displayed as either points, lines or polygons. A point is represented by its x-y coordinate; the line is represented by a sequence of x-y coordinates that form the nodes of the lines; and the polygon is a closed loop of node coordinates, with the first and last x-y coordinate the same. 1.2 - Applications of GIS GIS technologies have been found to be extremely useful tools for various environmental and natural resource management applications, as well as support for planning and management activities, such as: - environmental analysis; such as environmental impact assessment, air quality, water quality, natural hazard mapping;
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GIS for Sustainability Assessment Driving Forces Basic Trends e.g. in transport, industrial production, consumption
A DSS for sustainability assessment must have goals such as: - to connect data, statistics, and information related to political and management needs at a local, regional and national level; - to integrate data sets with geographical data as a basis for the decision-making process at different levels; - to improve and simplify the exchange and the quality of information used in decision-making and planning; - to make information accessible to different users. To reach these goals, the first step is to identify problems and target sectors for which to select or develop indicators; secondly availability and quality of data related to target sectors must be evaluated. It is also important to define the spatial limits (geographical or political) and levels of analysis. Finally, indicators must be selected, for each target sector and geographical level, according to quality criteria.
Pressure Human activities affecting the environment e.g. CO2 emissions
Response ...of Society to the problem e.g. introduction of energy taxes
State Observable changes of the environment, e.g. rising global temperature Impact Effects of a changed environment e.g. fall in agricolture production
fig. 2.1 - The DPSIR model for Indicators selection
2.2 - Environmental Issues and Target Sectors To select the indicators to assess progress in sustainable development first it is necessary to identify and define the main issues and target sectors for which indicators are to be elaborated and evaluated (see par. 2).
2.1 - Sustainability Indicators Framework Several sets of methodological frameworks or guidelines have been identified for the measurement of sustainability indicators by different organisations. Indicator frameworks, which organise individual indicators or indicator sets in a coherent manner, have several additional uses. They can guide the overall data and information collecting process. They are useful tools for decision-makers, summarising key information from different sectors. They suggest logical groupings for related sets of information promoting their interpretation and integration. They can help to identify data collection needs. The two frameworks mainly used are the PSR (pressure-state-response) and the DPSIR (driving forces-pressure-state-impact-response) frameworks, used by the European Commission, the European Environment Agency, the OECD, the World Bank and the UN Commission for Sustainable Development. The PSR framework has an implicit notion of causality since it tends to suggest linear relationships in the human activity-environment interaction. Pressure refers to human activities that exert a pressure on the environment and change its quality and the quality and quantity of natural resources (the State). Society responds to the changes through environmental, economic and sectoral policies (the Response). The latter forms a feedback loop to pressures, and these pressures are considered to be negative. The DPSIR model introduces Driving Force, which indicates an impact on sustainable development that can be both positive and negative. In this way economic, social and institutional aspects of sustainable development are also included. It also separates State and Impact indicators. State indicators show the current condition of the environment. Impact indicators describe the ultimate effects of changes of state.
table 2.1 - Environmental issues and target sectors in the EU Greenhouse gases and climate change Biodiveristy and nature conservation urban environment waste management Release of chemicals in the environment soil degradation and desertification Consumption of energy to renewable resources rural areas
acidification and air quality water (quality and use), water stress coastal areas natural and technological hazards Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) efficient use and management of natural resources human health mountain areas
In the EU context, the main environmental issues can be derived from the 5th Environmental Action Programme; new concerns can be seen in the European Environment Agency (EEA) 1999 report on the State of Environment, a report which is also considered by the Commission for the proposal of a 6th Environmental Action Programme. These target areas are summarised in table 2.1. 2.3 - Availability and Quality of Data After the definition of target sectors and environmental issues, quality and availability of data required need to be assessed. At the same time it is important to know the geographical extension in order to define the political, geographical and ecological units for the assessment and monitoring of the state of main problems according to the biophysical and socioeconomic characteristics of the territory (units of management, ecological region, political-administrative units, census units, environmental systems). An example of data available on an informatic support at a European level is listed in table 2.2. From the basic material, derived data sets can be produced for specific assessment purposes. Briefing Note N° 6/2001
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table 2.2 - Available (digitalised) data for environmental assessment on European scale (1/1 000 000) Theme Administrative units Topography Population Land cover Ecological regions Biotopes Nationally designated sites Nature inventories Water patterns, rivers and catchments Coastal zone Coastal erosion Soil erosion risk Land quality
Content mask defining the European Territory 1 km resolution digital elevation model (DTM) population density by smallest administrative units 1/100 000 CORINE land cover classes of the EU, available on a 250m by 250m grid database 1/3 000 000 digitised map of the European ecological regions inventory of major nature sites, vulnerable ecosystems, habitats and species geographic location and size of sites designated under international conventions sites complying to scientific criteria of importance to nature conservation surface water pattern and over 1500 catchments to river confluences, 1/1 000 000 derived from administrative regions 1/100 000 inventory on coastal morphology and erosion risk assessment of the potential and actual soil erosion risk based on soil, climate, slopes , vegetation (south Europe) land quality based on soil, climate, slope, land improvements (south Europe)
source
Year
Eurostat Eurostat EEA/NATLAN
1994 1996 1986-99
ETC/LC CORINE/ NATLAN
1997 1995
EEA/EIONET/ NATLAN
1993
EEA/EIONET, Birdlife Int. CEC, DGXI, EEA/ERICA
1999
Eurostat EEA/NATLAN EEA/CORINE/ NATLAN
1996 1990 1990
EEA/CORINE/ NATLAN
1990
1985/1998
harmonised. Some data need continuous updating, especially socio-economic trends and land use data.
The European Environment Agency provides different services and tools for viewing and distributing information, data and applications on different environmental issues, such as NATLAN on land cover and nature, ERICA on water resources, and DataService (data on acidification, air quality, emission and climate change, ozone depletion, and socioeconomic data). Various databases can be sources for data on plant distribution (Atlas Florae Europae Database), aquatic resources (Fishbase) and nature and protected areas (EUNIS, WCMC). Links and information about these databases can be found on the EEA website (www.eea.eu.int). Another important source of European data is Eurostat, which provides statistics on socio-economic sector, such as economy and finance, population and social conditions, industry trade and services, transport and energy; it also provides statistics on agriculture, fishery and environment. All these data can be displayed on a map using a GIS. Any statistic or numerical data can be related to the geographic or administrative unit where it was measured, thus giving a spatial representation of the data. An important task when bringing together all necessary data in a single information system consists in checking their quality, availability and appropriateness for the use in the assessment. Some of the databases are rather heterogeneous as far as age is concerned. The available environmental spatially-referenced data at EU level suffer certain limitations, either in scale, coverage or content. Some cover data are compilations of various (national) databases: the EU database is not yet fully
2.4 - Selection of Indicators and Models Finally, indicators related to the issues must be selected according to decision criteria. A Eurostat publication in 1999 called "Towards Environmental Pressure Indicators for the EU" describes a comprehensive system of environmental pressure indicators. The important trends are shown for ten policy fields which are: Air pollution, Loss of Biodiversity, Marine Environment and Coastal Zones, Ozone Layer Depletion, Resource Depletion, Dispersion of Toxic substances, Urban Environmental problems, Waste, Water Pollution and Water Resources. The quality criteria used for the selection of the indicators are: * Relevance: the closeness of the indicator to the environmental problem to be measured, the methodology chosen and the relevance of the breakdown published. * Overall accuracy: comparability of data, reliability of data sources, coverage of the indicator, reliability and validation of the methodology used. * Comparability over time: the number of time series that were found and their comparability (e.g. consistency of methodology over time) * Comparability in space: relates to the number of Member States that are represented in the indicator and the geographical coverage and reliability of data within the countries The sets of indicators selected for each policy fields are listed in table 2.3.
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table 2.3 - Environmental Pressure Indicators selected by Eurostat Consumption of gasoline & diesel oil by road vehs. Emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOX) Clearance of natural and seminatural forest
Emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) Emissions of Carbon dioxide (CO2) Protected area loss, damage and fragmentation
Wetland loss through drainage
Marine Environment and Coastal zones
Eutrophication
Fishing pressure
Oil pollution at coast and at sea
Ozone Layer Depletion
Emissions of Bromo-fluorocarbons
Emissions of chloro- fluorocarbons
Resource Depletion
Water consumption per capita
Dispersion of Toxic Substances
Emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO2)
Primary energy consumption
Emissions of particles
Emissions of sulphur oxides (SOX) Change in traditional landuse practice Discharges of halogenated organic compounds
Emissions of chloro- fluorocarbons Fragmentation of forest and landscapes
Agriculture intensity: area for intensive agricult.
Discharges of heavy metals
Development along shore
Emissions of chlorinated carbons
Emissions of methyl bromide (CH3Br)
Emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOX)
Use of energy per capita
Electricity production from fossil fuel
Timber balance (new growth/ harvest)
Nutrient balance of the soil
Consumption of pesticides
Emissions of persistant organic pollutants
Index of heavy metal emissions to air
Emissions of radioactive material
Index of heavy metal emissions to water
Consumption of toxic chemicals
Urban Environmental problems
Energy consumption
Non-recycled municipal waste
People endangered by noise emissions
Share of private car transport
Non-treated waste water
Waste Management
Waste landfilled
Waste incinerated
Waste per product
Municipal waste
Hazardous waste
Water pollution and resources
Nutrient use (nitrogen and phosphorus)
Ground water abstraction
Water treated/ water collected
Nitrogen used per hectare of agriculture area
Pesticides used per hectare of agricultured area
Air Pollution Climate Change Loss of biodiversity
Emissions of NMVOC Emissions of Methane (CH4)
Land use (change from natural to builtup area) Waste recycled/ material recovered Emissions of organic matter as BOD
Emissions of nitrous oxide (N2O)
Emissions of hydrochlorofluorocarbons Increase in territory permanently occupied
. projections in land use (population projection, potential productive land, deforestation rate, greenhouse emissions, mean annual investment, rehabilitation costs and benefits, carbon absorption by reforestation).
Examples of other indicators are: - environmental state indicators: . Ecosystem and Land use: soil conservation service, annual production and value, costs of deforestation/reforestation, statistical/country reports, tourism value. . Biological diversity: biodiversity data, investment in conservation, accessibility. . Freshwater and Coastal Resources: population, tourism value, renewable water resource per capita, production and consumption. . Atmosphere and Climate: emissions CO2 by activity, natural disasters (population affected and economic loss). - environmental impact indicators: Human induced degradation, ex. on land use: water erosion (loss of topsoil, terrain deformation); chemical deterioration (salinization, pollution, acidification); physical deterioration (compacting, subsidence) - environmental response indicators: . information and participation (number of environmental profiles and assessment, number of NGOs by activity area, public perception of environmental problems); . treaties and conventions (protected areas, IUCN sites, signature of international treaties, funds generates for conservation);
Some of these indicators are simple parameters that can be directly measured or simply derived from other observations. In some occasions it is useful to use more complex methodologies, especially when trends or previsions need to be evaluated. In this case mathematical or computer-based models are the appropriate tools. There is a wide range of computer tools, simulation models and programs for different purposes, from environmental to economical and social uses. A review of models for Environmental Assessment is presented by the EEA (Technical report 14/98, Computer-Based Models in Integrated Environmental Assessment). Economical activities and their impact on environment can also be evaluated by means of different methodologies; some of them are single-index methodologies, like the Ecological Footprinting (EF) or the Total Material Requirement (TMR). Usually these methodologies aggregate all environmental concerns into a single index (land area use for EF, total mass of primary materials extracted for TMR) or few indicators. These indexes need as well a rich and complex database that includes physical and socio-economic data and mathematical models, and can be included in Briefing Note N° 6/2001
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a comprehensive DSS as summarising tools of evaluation and communication.
3 - Conclusion: the European context
2.5 - The GIS Component
Sustainable Development is a complicated matter, not very well defined in a unique way. There are different ways to intend it and to assess it. It is also very difficult to explain it to the public and let them understand what it is all about and what effects can make on everyday life. Indicators have been selected to measure some components of Sustainable Development, and indexes have been developed to sum up information, as ways of communication not only for policy-maker but also for the public. A comprehensive DSS can be useful for this aim too. Policy-makers would have a reference tool with a set of data and methodologies to assess sustainability or environmental performance of human activities, and a powerful mean of communication to the public through maps and images. The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) in co-operation with UNEP and World Bank has started in 1995 a project to develop a DSS using a GIS component and integrating geographical and socioeconomic data and indicators for the Latin America and Caribbean area. In Europe there are different on going projects on Sustainability, but each considering different aspects, or not considering the spatial dimension of the issue. The EEA has established a service called EnviroWindows that enable groups of users (e.g. researchers, project groups, companies, NGOs and local authorities) to maintain a space on the internet where they can share information, documents and participate in discussions. Information is organised into three areas (management concepts for business and industry, decision support system for environmental professionals, sustainable development for local authorities). The EEA also provide the tool STAR, an inventory of current environmental policy targets and sustainability reference values which apply in the EEA member countries. The Institute for Space Application of Ispra (JRC - SAI) is currently developing the project EUROLANDSCAPE, Geo-information for Development and Environmental Monitoring, focused on the observation, monitoring and development of indicators for urban areas, landscape and rural areas. Earth observation data, GIS and methods for modelling are used to analyse the different components of the European landscape and the complex interactions found both within and between these components. Eurostat, in collaboration with other organisation under the name of TEPI, is working on different projects that aim to integrate different aspects of sustainability assessment: the EEI - European Environmental Pressure Index (aggregation of environmental pressure indicators), EPIS Environmental Pressure Information System (a tool for the compilation and modelling of timely data on environmental pressure arising from different economic activities), and SDI Sustainable Development Index (integration of
A GIS can manage the available data, indicators and models in a single tool. The objective of the GIS component is to create a spatial database of economic, social and environmental indicators at a European level. These data will be accessible for display and analysis via a graphical user interface. The spatial database can also be used to develop and apply sustainability models and scenarios that examine causes, effects and interactions under different development strategies. The merits of using GIS in indicator work are several: - Analysis: GIS provides a range of tools for spatial analysis, and frequently also tools (such as statistical analysis) for non-spatial analysis of attribute data associated with geographic features. Mathematical models or index can be implemented in the GIS software and be run directly on data and location chosen by the user, according to the needs. - Database management: many of the more comprehensive GIS software packages are connected with powerful database management systems (DBMS). GIS may be used to keep and maintain an indicator database, including environmental and statistical data, and represent them through cartographic visualisation. - Visualisation: the production of cartographic outputs is a key feature of any GIS. In a framework for sustainable development indicators, it may be useful to produce spatial indicator maps and 'reference' maps; the temporal aspect can also be included by showing maps of data from different periods of time. Another type of cartographic illustration that may be useful is a reference or index map, showing the location of measurement stations. Textual guidance for users can also be provided through text boxes or drop-down menu. - GIS-www interlinkage: there is a trend for GIS software to be directly connected to Internet www server software, not only for the publication of static maps, but for the possibilities for interactive analysis by Internet users of on-line sustainable development indicator databases managed by GIS software linked to Web servers allowing the Internet user to individually define and visualise spatial indicators better suiting his/her needs. Such on-line interactivity also allows for individual definition and creation of graphs and charts. A GIS also allows updating of data and maps, only by modifying a part of the system and leaving the whole structure of the tool. In this way new data, indicators and models can be changed and implemented, and also only certain part of the system can be used according to the main issues that are needed to be evaluated.
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PE nr. 297.564 - February 2001
GIS for Sustainability Assessment - European Commission, DG Environment, "Fifth European Community environment programme: towards sustainability" http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/l28062.htm
indicators and statistic on environmental, economic and social aspects of European policy). The establishment of a unique reference tool, that includes different aspects of sustainability, data, models and a geographic component, is advised. Such a DSS can be a useful instrument for policy-makers, to develop a regional approach to indicators and information, which would allow integration and harmonisation with global and international initiatives, and would make information accessible to decisionmakers and to the public. A GIS can be the appropriate information technology for this purpose.
- European Commission, DG Environment, "A New Environmental Action Programme" http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/newprg/index.htm - European Environment Agency, Tools&Services http://service.eea.eu.int - European Environment Agency, Technical Report no. 14, "Computer-Based Models in Integrated Environmental Assessment", 1998 http://themes.eea.eu.int/binary/t/tech14.pdf - European Environment Agency, "Environment in the European union at the turn of the century", 1999 http://themes.eea.eu.int/binary/e/eu_98_uk.pdf
Author: Viviana VALENTINI under the supervision of Graham CHAMBERS, Head of STOA Unit
- European Environment Agency, Environmental Issues Series no. 11, "Spatial and Ecological Assessment of the TEN: Demonstration of Indicators and GIS methods", 1998 http://binary.eea.eu.int/s/seaoften.pdf
Statements made in this STOA Briefing do not necessarily reflect the view of the European Parliament. Directorate A or: Environment, Energy and Research Division, STOA European Parliament Rue Wiertz 60 L-2929 LUXEMBOURG B-1047 BRUSSELS Fax: (352) 4300 27718 Fax: (32) 2 2844980
- Eurostat, "Towards Environmental Pressure Indicators for the EU", 1999. - ISPRA SAI JRC, SAI 04 EURO-LANDSCAPE, Geo-information for development and environmental monitoring www.sai.jrc.it/euro_landscape.htm - TEPI project - www.e-m-a-i-l.nu/tepi
Bibliography
- S. Langaas, "The Spatial dimension of Indicators of Sustainable Development", UNEP/GRID - Arendal, 1997 www.grida.no/prog/norbal/docs/gisisd
- Geographic Information systems and Remote Sensing Technologies for Mountain Development, ICIMOD www.icimod.org.sg
- W. Rees, "Revisiting Carrying Capacity: Area-Based Indicators of Sustainability", University of British Columbia, 1996 - www.aloha.net/∼jhanson/page110.htm
- "A review of Indicators of Agricultural and Rural Livelihood Sustainability", Department for International Development Research Project No. R7076CA http://les1.man.ac.uk/ses/research/CAFRE/indicators/wpapers .htm
GIS vendors websites -
- Environmental and Sustainability Indicators for Latin American and the Caribbean - CIAT-UNEP Environmental and Sustainability Indicators www.ciat.cgiar.org/indicators/txtonly/unepciat/paper.htm
www.autodesk.com www.bentley.com www.caris.com www.esri.com www.genasys.com www.intergraph.com www.objectfx.com www.mapinfo.com
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