Principles of Environmental Engineering and Science Second Edition
Macken%ie L. Davis Michigan State University-East Lansing
Susan J. Masten Michigan State University-East Lansing, MI McMaster University-Hamilton, ON
fB McGraw-Hili
t:M Higher Education Boston Burr Ridge, IL Dubuque, IA New York San Francisco SI. Louis Bangkok Bogot8. Caracas Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal New Delhi Santiago Seoul Singapore Sydney Taipei Toronto
Contents
Preface Acknowledgments Aboutthe Authors About the Cover Artist
1 1-1
1-2
WHAT IS ENVJRONMENTAL SCIENCE?
2
2
2
2
WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING?
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Overview Hydrology Water Treatment Wastewater Treatment Air Pollution Control Solid emd Hazardous Waste
1-4
HOW ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERS
AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENTISTS
WORK TOGETHER
1-5
INTRODUCTION TO PRINCIPLES OF
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
AND SCIENCE
1-6
1-7
ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION
AND REGULATION ENVIRONMENTAL ETH[CS Case I: To Add 01' Nut 10 Add Case 2: You Can 't Do Everything At Once
iv
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
8
9
2 2-1 2-2
22
22
23
31
01'
Not tu MTBE?
INTRODUCTION BASIC CHEMICAL CONCEPTS Atoms, Elements, and the Periodie Table Chemical Bonds and Intermolecular Forces The Mole, Molar Units, and Aetivity Units Chemical Reaetions and Stoiehiometry Chemieal Equilibrium Reaetion Kinetics
2-3
2-4
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
2-5 2-6
33
33
34
36
37
44
56
61
62
63
63
WATER CHEMISTRY
64
SOlL CHEMTSTRY ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY
64
65
66
69
75
Chapter Review Problems Discussion Questions References
76
78
80
81
86
86
Biology
89
Case Study: Poison Warer?
90
91
Fundamentals
3
32
32
Allwnes, Alkenes, and Alkynes Aryl (Aromatic) Compounds Funetional Graups and Classes of Compounds Physical Properties of Water States of Solution Impurities Concentration Units in Aqueous Solutions
01' Suspensions Buffers
10
19
[9
23
24
25
29
Chemistry Case Study: To MTBE
9
11
Where Do We Start? 11
A Short Outline ofThis Book 11
ENVIRONMENTf\L SYSTEMS OVERVIEW 12
Systems as Such 12
Water Resource Management System 13
Air Resource Managemel1/ System 17
[7
Solid Waste Management Multimedia Systems 19
[9
Sustainability
Acts, La ws, ell1d Regulations
1-8
xv
I
Engineering Environmental Engineering
1-3
XIV
Introduction Natural Scienee Environmental Science Quamitative Environmental Seience
Chapter Review Problems Discussion Questions References
xi
XIII
(~r Gases
3-1
INTRODUCTION
3-2
CHEMTCAL COMPOSITION OF LIFE Carbohydrates Nuc/eie Acids Proteins Lipids
91
91
93
96
96
Contenl;
:M)
23 24
,
-)
29
3-4
ENERGY AND METABOLlSM Cells, MalIei; and Energy
3-5
CELLULAR REPRODUCTION The Cell Cycle Asexual Reproduclion Sexual Reproduetion
98 100 101 103 109 109 109 110 IJ2 1/2 IJ4 1/4
DIVERSITY OF L1VING THINGS
1/5
PROKARYOTES Archaea Baeleria
116 117 117 120 120 122 125
31
32 'J
'-
3-6 3-1
3-8
3-9
3-10 3-11 3-12 .16 ,9
5
THE CELL Prokaryoles and Eukaryoles Cell Membrane Ce/! Organelles of Eukaryoles Cell Organelles of Plal11 Cells Ce/! Organelles (!f Prokaryoles
PROTISTS Protozoa Algae Slime Molds and Water Molds
MICROBIAL DISEASE
125 125 125 125 126 126 127 128
MICROBIAL TRANSFORMATIONS Chapter Review Discussion Questions References
129 130 131 132
Materials and Energy Balances
J33
FUNGI Chytridiomycola Zygomycola Aseomycota Basidiomyeola Deuleromyceta VIRUSES
Reoclors Reaelor Analysis
4-4
5
4
1
:6
b
4-1 4-2
INTRODUCTION
4-3
MATERIALS BALANCES Fundamenlais Time os a FaClor More Complex Syslems Efficiency The S,a,e ofMixing lncluding Reaetions
UNIFYING THEORIES Conservation of MaIleI' Conservalion of Energy Conservalion 01 Maller and Energy
134 134 134 134 134 135 135 136 137 140 143 145
v
149 150 158 158 159 166 168 169 176 177
Ecosystems
179
Case Sludy: DDT-Curse 01' Blessing?
180 18J 181
5-1
INTRODUCTION Ecosyslems
5-2
HUMAN INFLUENCES ON ECOSYSTEMS
181
5-3
ENERGY AND MASS FLOW Bioaccumulation
182 187
5-4
NUTRIENT CYCLES Carbon Cyc/e Nilrogen Cyc/e Phosphorus Cyc/e Sulfur Cyc/e
189 189 190 193 194
5-5
POPULATION DYNAMICS BaClerial Population Growlh Animal Populalion Dynamics Human Populalion Dynan,ies
195 195 197 202
5-6
LAKES: AN EXAMPLE OF MASS AND ENERGY CYCLING IN AN ECOSYSTEM Slratifieatio/1 anel Tumover i/1 Deep Lakes Biologieal Zones Lake ProduClivily EUlrophicalion
205 206 207 208 212
ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS TO PROTECT ECOSYSTEMS Chapter Review Problems Discussion Questions References
2J4 215 216 219 219
6 ()
ENERGY BALANCES FirSI Law ofThermodynamics Fundamentals Second Law ofThermodynamics Chapter Review Problems Discussion Questions References
I
5-1
6
6-1 6-2
Risk Perception, Assessment, and Management 221 Case Sludy: No Swimming!
222
INTRODUCTION
222
RISK PERCEPTION
222
vi
I
Contents
6-3
RISK ASSESSMENT Data Collection and Evaluation Toxicity Assessmen/ Exposure Assessl11en/ Risk Characlerization
225
225
231
237
RISK MANAGEMENT Chapter Review Problems Discussion Questions References
238
238
239
241
241
Hydrology
243
Case Study: The Dying ofa Sea
244
7-1
FUNDAMENTALS OF HYDROLOGY The Hydrological Cycle
246
246
7-2
MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION,
EVAPORATION, INFILTRATION, AND
STREAMFLOW Precipilation Evaporation Infiltralion Streamfiow
254
254
257
260
262
7-3
GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY Aquifers
264
265
7-4 7-5
GROUNDWATER FLOW
269
WELL HYDRAULICS Definition ofTerms Cone of Depression
273
273
275
6-4
7
Environmen/allmpacts Terrain Effec/s Suslainable Energy Sources Energy Conservo/ion
306
8-3
MINERAL RESOURCES Rese,-ves Environmentalll11pacts Resource COl1serva/ion
310
310
3J J
312
8-4
SOlL RESOURCES El1.ergy Storage Plant Production
3J5
315
315
8-5
PARAMETERS OF SOlL SUSTAINABILITY Nutrient Cycling Soil Acidit)' Soil Salinity Tex/ure and Structure
3 I6
316
318
318
319
8-6
SOlL CONSERVATION SoU Man.agement SoU Erosion Chapter Review Problems Discussion Questions References
3\9
319
320
326
326
328
328
224
7-6
SURFACE WATER AND GROUNDWATER
AS A WATER SUPPLY 280
7-7
DEPLETION OF GROUNDWATER
AND SURFACE WATER Water Use Land Subsidence Chapter Review Problems Discussion Questions References
9 Water Quality
Management 9-1
9-2
28\
28\
28J
283
284
286
286
8 Sustainable Energy, Mineral and Soil Resources
289
Case Study: A New Precious Metal-Copper!
290
8-1
INTRODUCTION Sustainable Development
290
290
8-2
ENERGY RESOURCES Coal Fonnation Petroleum Formation Fossil Fuel Reserves Nuclear Energy
291
29J
292
293
295
290
299
2<)9
9-3
331
Case Swdy: There She Slows!
332
INTRODUCTION
334
WATER POLLUTANTS
AND THEIR SOURCES Point Sources Nonpoint Sources Oxygen-Demanding Material Nutrients Pathogenic Organisms Suspended Solids Salts Pesticides Pharl11aceuticals and Personal Care Produc/s Enducrin.e-Disrupting Chel11icals
Other Organic Chemicals Arsenic Toxic Metals Heat Nanopanicles
335
335
335
335
336
338
338
339
339
341
342
343
343
344
345
346
WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT
IN RIVERS Effect of Oxygen-Demanding H0stes
on Rivers Biochemical Oxygen Demand
346
347
347
Contents
91';
Laboratory Measurement of Biochemical Oxygen Demand Additional Notes on Biochemical Oxygen Denwnd Nitrogen Oxidation DOSag Cun1e Effect ofNutrients Oll Water Qualit)' in Rivers
tl9 99 6 10 10
I1 12
9'-4
5 )5
WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN LAKES Control of Phosphorus in Lakes
lli
Acidification of Lakes
:1:'
352 355 356 357 373
()
GROUNDWATER QUALITY Contaminant Migration in Groundwaters Chapter Review Problems Discussion Questions
6
References
374 374 378 385 386 389 389 393 394 399 399
Water Treatment
403
Case Study: Walkerton-The Town Where Kids Died jrom E. coli
404
16
9-5
8
9-6 9-7
9 ()
9
WATER QUALITY IN ESTUARIES WATER QUALITY IN OCEANS
1<)-7
.6
10-8
10-1
INTRODUCTION Water Qualiry Physical Charoueristics
Chemical Characteristics Microhiological Characteristics Radiological Charaeteristics U.S. Water Quality Standards Water Classification and Treatment Systems
10-2
RAPID MIXING. FLOCCULATION. AND COAGULATION Col/oid Stability and Destabilization
Coagulants Mixing and Floeculation
10-3
10-4
SOFTENING Hardness Lime-Soda Softening Ion-Exchange Softening SEDIMENTATION Overview Determination of Sel/ling Velociry (v s) Determination of Overflow Rate (vo)
10-5
FILTRATION
10-6
DISINFECTION Disinfection Kineties Disinfectants and Disinfection By-Products
405 407 408 408 408 409 409 410 412 413 413 416 419 419 425 428 430 430 431 433 434 437 438 438
Chlorine Reactions in Water Chlorine Dioxide Ozonation Vltroviolet Radiation
440 441 441 442
OTHER TREATMENT PROCESSES FOR DRINKING WATER Membrane Processes Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) Carbon Adsorption Aeration
442 442 443 443 443
WATER PLANT RESIDUALS MANAGEMENT Mass-Balance Analysis Sludge Treatment Vltimate Disposal Chapter Review
References
444 445 446 451 451 452 454 455
Wastewater Treatment
457
Case Study: Cuyahoga River Burning
Problems Discussion Questions
11
10
I vii
11-1
INTRODUCTION Wastewater Treatment Perspective
458 459 459
11-2
CHARACTERISTICS OF DOMESTIC WASTEWATER Physical Characteristics Chemical Characteristics Characteristics of lndustrial Wastewater
460 460 460 461
11-3
WASTEWATER TREATMENT STANDARDS Pretreatment of lndustrial Wastes
11-4
ON-SITE DISPOSAL SYSTEMS Alternative On-Site Treatment anel Disposal Systems with Water On-Site Treatment Clnd Disposal Systems for Vnfavorable Site Conditions Other On-Site Treatment and Disposal Options Alternative On-Site Treatment-Dispusal Systems Without Water
11-5
MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS
11-6
UNIT OPERATIONS OF PRETREATM ENT Bar Rocks Grit Chambers Macerators
Equalization
463 464 465 465 469 471 471 473 474 474 474 476 476
viii
I
Contents
11-7 11-8
PRIMARY TREATMENT UNIT PROCESSES OF SECONDARY TREATMENT Overview Role ofMicroorganisms Population Dynamics AClivated Sludge Trickling Filters Oxidation Ponds Rotating Biological Contactors
11-9 11-10
DISINFECTION ADVANCED WASTEWATER TREATMENT Filtration Carbon Adsorption Phosphorus Removal Nitrogen Control
11-11
LAND TREATMENT FOR SUSTAINABILITY Slow Rate Overland Flow Rapid Injiltration
11-12
SLUDGE TREATMENT Sources and Characteristies of Various Sludges Solids Compwations Sludge Treatment Processes
11-13
12 12-1
500 500 501 501 502 503 505 505 505 505
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS Effects on Materials Effects on Vegetation Effeets on Health
12-5
ORIGIN AND FATE OF AIR POLLUTANTS Carbon Monoxide Hazardous Air Pol/utants (HA Ps) Lead Nitrogen Dioxide Photoehemieal Oxidants Sulfur Oxides Partieulates
12-6
MICRO AND MACRO AIR POLLUTION Indoor Air Pol/ution Acid Rain Ozone Depletion Global Warming
12-7
AIR POLLUTION METEOROLOGY The Atnwspherie Engine Turbulence Stability Terrain Effeets
12-8
ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION Faetors Affecting Dispersion ofAir Pol/ulants Dispersion Modeling
529 529 :HO
531 536 536 537 537 537 5JR 5JX 540 540 540 544 546 547 555 555 556 557 559 561
Ultinwte Disposal Land Spreading Landjilling Dedicated Land Disposal (DLD) Utilization Sludge Disposal Regulations Chapter Review Problems Discussion Questions Rel'erences
Air Pollution
523
WASTE MINIMIZATION FOR SUSTAINABILITY
Case Study: The Fog
524 525 525 525
Chapter Review Problems Discussion Questions References
582 583 584 585 586
Solid Waste Engineering
589
Case Study: Too Mueh. Waste, Tao Lillle Spaee
590 591 592
SLUDGE DISPOSAL
INTRODUCTION FUNDAMENTALS Pressure Relationships and Units of Measure Relativity Adiabatic Expansion and Compression
12-3
481 48] 481 482 483 495 497 499 500
12-4
506 506 508 515 515 515 515 515 515 515 516 5]7 521 521
Air Pollution Perspective
12-2
480
AIR POLLUTION STANDARDS
12-9 12-10
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL OF STATIONARY SOURCES Gaseous Pol/utants Flue Gas Desulfurization Control Technologiesfor Nitrogen Oxides Particulale Pollutanls Control Teehnologies for Mercury
12-11
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL OF MOBILE SOURCES Engine Fundamentals Control ofAutomobile Emissions
12-12
525 525 525 526
INDOOR AIR QUALITY MODEL
13 13-1
INTRODUCTION Magnitude of the Problem
561 562 568 571 571 574 575 576 579 579 579 58!
Contents
.'
529 529 530 531 536 536 537 537 537 538 538 540 540 540 544 546 547
68
13-2 13-3 13-4 13-5
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLID WASTE
593
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
596
SOLID WASTE COLLECTION
596
WASTE AS RESOURCE Background and Perspective Green Chemistry and Green Engineering Recycling Composting Source Reduction
597 597 598 598 602 603
13-6
SOLID WASTE REDUCTION Combustion Processes Types of lncinerators Public Health and Environmentallssues Other Thermal Treatment Processes
604 604 606 608 609
13-7
DISPOSAL BY SANITARY LANDFILL Site Selection Operation Environmental COllsiderations Leachate Methalle ami Other Gas Production Lalldfill Design Landfill CIosure Chapter Review Problems Discussion Questions References
609 610 611 613 613 617 620 62J 621 622 624 624
Hazardous Waste Management
627
I
I
14
71
71 74 5 6
Case Study: Not a Good Time atthe Beach
628
14-1
INTRODUCTION Dioxins and PCBs
628 628
14-2
EPA'S HAZARDOUS WASTE DESIGNATION SYSTEM
14-3
RCRA AND HSWA Congressional Actions 011 Hazardous Waste Cradle-to-Grave COl!cept Generator Requiremellts Transporter Regulations Treatment, Storage, ond Disposal Requiremel1ls Underground Siorage Tanks
631 631 631 633 634
CERCLA AND SARA The Supe/fund Law The National Priority List The Hazard Ranking System The National COl1lingency Plan Liability Supe/fund Amendments and Reauthorization Act
638 638 638 638 639 640
9
"9 9 I
;3
14-4
14-5
HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT Waste Minimization Waste Exchange Recycling
641 641 644 644
14-6
TREATMENT TECHNOLOG IES Biological Treatment Chemical Treatment Physical/Chemical Treatment Incineration StaIJi/ization-Solidification
645 645 647 650 655 662
14-7
LAND DISPOSAL Deep Weil InjeClion Land Treatment The Secure Landfill
662 662 663 663
14-8
GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION AND REMEDIATION The Process of Contamination EPA 's Groul1dwater Remediation Procedure Mitigation and Treatmenl Chapter Review Problems Discussion Questions References
667 667 667 669 676 677 682 682
Noise Pollution
685
15-1
INTRODUCTION Properties ofSound Waves Sound Power and Illtensity Levels and Ihe Decihel Characterization of Noise
686 687 688 689 691
15-2
EFFECTS OF NOISE ON PEOPLE The Hearing Mechanism Normal Hearing Hearing Impairment Damage-Risk Criteria Speech Inte1erence Annoyance Sieep Interference Effecis on Pe10rmance Acoustic Privacy
695 695 698 700 702 702 703 704 705 705
15-3
RATING SYSTEMS Goals of a Noise-Rating System The LN Concept The Leq Concept The Ldn Concept
706 706 706 707 708
15-4
COMMUNITY NOISE SOURCES AND CRITER1A Transportation Noise Other Internal Combustion Engines Construction Noise
708 708 709 710
15
630
635 637
640
I ix
X
I
Contents
Zoning and Siring Considerarions Levels ro Proreet Healrh and Welfare
15-5
TRANSMISSION OF SOUND
OUTDOORS
Inverse Square lLlw Radiarion Fields ofaSound Souree DireCliviry Airborne Transmission
711 712
15-6
TRAFFIC NOISE PREDICTION Lcq Prediction Ldn Predieriol1
15-7
NOISE CONTROL Souree-Parh-Reeeiver Coneepr Conrra! 0/ Noise Souree by Design Noise Conrral in rhe Transmission Path Conrral ofNoise Souree by Redress Prareer rhe Receiver Chapter Review Problems Discussion Questions References
712 712 714 714
715
716 716 716 717 717
717 719 721 721
722
723
726
727
lonizing Radiation
729
FUNDAMENTALS
Aromic Srrueture Radioaerivily and Radiarion Radioacrive Decay Radioimropes Fission The Produerion of X-Rays Radiarion Dose
730 730
731
733
736
737
738 740
BIOLOGlCAL EFFECTS OF
IONIZING RADIATION
Sequenria! Pallern of Bi%gical Effeers Dererminanrs of Biologieat Effeets
742 742
742
16 16-1
16-2
Aeute Effecrs Relarion ofDose ro Type ofAeute
Radiation Syndrome Delayed Effeers Generie Effecrs
16-3 16-4
RADIATION STANDARDS RADIATION EXPOSURE Exrernal and Inrernal Radiarion Hazards Natural Background X-Rays Radionuclides Nuclear Reaeror Operarions RadioaClive Wasres
16-5
RADIATION PROTECTION Reduerion 0/ Exrernal Radiarion Hazards Reduerion of Inrernal Radiarion Hazards
16-6
RADlOACTIVE WASTE Types of Wasre Managemenr of High-Level RadioaClive Wasre Wasre Isolarion Pilor Planr Managemenr of Law-Level
Radioaerive Wasre Lang-Term Managemenr and Containmenr Chapter Review Problems Discussion Questions References
744
744
745
747
748
750
750
750
751
752
752
753
753
753
757
758
758
759
760
760
763
765
766
767
767
Appendix
A
Credits Index
Propenies of Air. Water, and
Selected Chemieals
769
775
777
