Set 5: Block 4 Indian Literature Through Ages - IASbaba

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Indian Literature Through Ages

Language is a medium through which we express our thoughts while literature is a mirror that reflects ideas and philosophies which govern our society. Hence, to know any particular culture and its tradition it is very important that we understand the evolution of its language and the various forms of literature like poetry, drama and religious and non-religious writings. We have already discussed the literature from Ancient India while discussing the Indian Ancient History. In this version, we will look into Medieval and modern period and try to understand their impact on History.

MEDIEVAL INDIAN LITERATURE Medieval Indian literature was greatly influenced by various factors, dominated mostly by various religions. The Middle Ages in India were an incessant period of perpetual fluctuation. Ordinary life during medieval period was exceedingly complex, undergoing fast changes. The continuous influx of migratory population brought with it different beliefs, customs, practices and lifestyles, turning major portions of India into an ablaze pot. The spread of philosophical movements or the sublime popularity of these genres, cultivated innate resources and responses to external forces were bettered to be prepared for the worse. The end result to this period a vibrant kaleidoscope of language and literature, which absolutely mirrored and reflected upon these themes of competition between two dominant religions: Hinduism and Islam. Medieval Indian literature wholly banked upon these themes, creating its own distinctive history in the long run. We will study the Medieval Period’s literature under following themes:

We will see literature under various Regional languages and Bhakti period first then we will discuss the Sultanate/ Mughal period literature. We have mentioned only the most prominent one’s here as the list can be endless.

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SANSKRIT LITERATURE RAJTARANGINI

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Kalhana Pandit was the pioneer historiographer who who the first ajatarangini and described in it the history of Kashmir from the earliest time to 1148-49. Two centuries later the thread of the narrative was picked up by Jyots-Nakara popularly known as Jonaraja. He wrote the history of Kashmir from 1149-1459 AD and gave the same title Rajatarangini to it. Jonaraja work thus the earliest contemporary history of Kashmir during the Sultanat period. Jonaraja’s pupil Srivara, who also rose to be a distinguished scholar, poet and musician and engaged the patronage of Zanul Abidin and his successors, produced yet another historical composition in Sanskrit poetry, under the title Jaina Rajatarangini. His work contains the history of the ruling house of Kashmir from 1459-1486. The tradition of writing the history of Kashmir under the title Rajatarangini was continued by “Prajyabhatta and Suka whose works help us to some extent, in reconstructing the history of the reign upto 1596 AD. Kashmir was conquerted by Akbar in 1585.

KATHĀSARITSĀGARA

The Kathāsaritsāgara ("Ocean of the Streams of Stories") is a famous 11th-century collection of Indian legends, fairy tales and folk tales as retold in Sanskrit by a Shaiva named Somadeva. VIKRAMANKADEVACHARITA

Vikramankadevacharita is a eulogy written by Bilhana praising Vikramaditya VI. KATHA KOSA

Harisena’s Katha kosa is the best example of Jain short stories in Sanskrit. BHAKTI POETRY The most powerful trend of medieval Indian literature between 1000 and 1800 A.D. is devotional (bhakti) poetry which dominates almost all the major languages of the country. Unlike the dark middle ages of Europe, India’s middle ages brought about a very rich tradition of devotional literature of remarkable merit which dispels the superstitious assumption of a dark period of India’s history. Bhakti literature is the most important development of the medieval period.

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It is love poetry. Love for one’s Lord, Krishna or Rama, the two main incarnations of the great God Vishnu. This love is depicted as love between husband and wife, or between lovers, or between servant and master, or between parents and child. This is personalisation of the godhood, which means a truthful perception of God residing in you, and also harmony in life which only love can bring. Worldly love is Kama (Eros) and divine love is Prema (mystic Eros). The dominating note in bhakti is ecstasy and total identity with God. It is a poetic approach to religion and an ascetic approach to poetry. It is poetry of connections – connecting the worldly with the divine, and as a result, the old form of secular love poetry began to have a new meaning in all languages. The rise of bhakti poetry gave rise to regional languages (Bhasa). The conception of bhakti did away with the elite tradition of Sanskrit and accepted the more acceptable language of the common man. Kabir (Hindi) says that Sanskrit is like water of a well stagnant, Bhasa like flowing water. A seventh century Shaiva Tamil writer Manikkarvachakar has something similar to say about in his book of poetry Thiruvachakam. Bhakti also attacked the age-old caste system and devoted itself to the worship of humanity, because the catch-word of bhakti is that God is there in every human being. The movement was in essence subaltern, as most of its poets belonged to the so-called ‘lower’ castes. Bhakti is antitheology and against any kind of conceptual erudition.

Bhakti Kal Poetry Nirguna (Formless)

Monotheism

Love as path to realise God

Saguna (Human Incarnation)

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The Bhakti Kal poetry is divided into Nirguna and Saguna Schools depending upon the devotional attitude of the poets towards the Lord. The Nirgunas believed in a formless god, while the Sagunas believed in a human incarnation of god. The Nirgunas have been further divided into two groups on the basis of the different sadhanas (disciplines) followed by them. One group includes Kabir, Guru Nanak, Dharma Das, Maluk Das, Dadudayal, Sunder Das etc, who emphasised on monotheism through their Sakhis (couplets) and Padas (songs). Another group of the Nirguna poets was of the Sufi poets, who believed that love was the path of realising God. These included Jayasi, Manjhan, Kutuban and Usman. The Saguna poets are either the followers of Rama or Krishna. BIJAK

Bhakti became a great platform for Hindu-Muslim unity. Kabir (Hindi) is the foremost among the poets of the sant tradition (faith in one omnipresent god and not in many gods like Rama and Krishna). Kabir’s poetry touches upon the various aspects of devotion, mysticism and social reforms. Bijak is the best known of the compilations of the compositions of Kabir, and as such is the holy scripture for followers of the Kabirpanthi religion. The Bijak is one of the earliest of the major texts in modern Hindi. The term Bijak is derived from Bijak, meaning a document containing sacred texts. GURU GRANTH SAHIB

Nanak, the first Sikh Guru, wrote in many languages, but mostly in Punjabi, and was a great poet of inter-religious communication. Nanak says truth is supreme, but above truth is truthful living. Guru Nanak and other Sikh Gurus belong to the sant tradition, which believes in one omnipresent God, and not in many gods like Rama and Krishna. The poetry of the Sikh Gurus is collected in the Guru Granth Sahib (the Revered Book), a multilingual text which talks about the unchanging one reality (Sat) the cosmic law (Hukum), meditation (Satnam), compassion and harmony (Daya and Santosh). Bulleh Shah, the most famous Muslim Punjabi poet, popularised Sufism through Punjabi Kafi (verse-form). Kafi is a small poem in stanzas followed by refrain and is sung in a dramatic way. Shah Latif, the famous Sindhi Muslim poet (1689 A.D.) in his sacred work Risalo explained Sufi mystic love as the divine truth. RAMACHARIT MANAS

Tulsidas (1532 A.D.) was the greatest of the Rama-bhakti poets who wrote his famous epic, the Ramacharit Manas (the lake of the deeds of Rama). In fact, epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata received a rebirth in the new languages. These languages gave a fresh life, a renewed relevance, and a meaningful reincarnation to the great Sanskrit epics, and these epics

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in their turn provided substance and style to the new languages too. Kamban in Tamil, Krittibasa Ojha in Bengali, sarala Das in Oriya, Ezhuttacchan in Malayalam, Tulsidas in Hindi and Nannaya in Telugu are well known and legion. Muslim poets like Malik Muhammad Jayasi, Raskhan, Rahim and other wrote Sufi and Vaishnava poetry. The religious and cultural synthesis that was a special feature of medieval India finds abundant expression in its literature. The Islamic element is all-pervasive, next only to the Upanishadic Hindu element. His other classical works: - Gitavali, Kavitavali and Vinay Patrika. SUR SAGAR

Surdas wrote his Sur Sagar in which he talks of Krishna as an infant, a young lad indulging in pranks and a young man engaged in dalliance with the gopis. He also wrote Sur Saravali. BHAJANS

Meera Bai is the most celebrated of the women poets of medieval times. She was one of the most significant figures Sant of the Vaishnava bhakti movement. Some 1,300 pads (poems) commonly known as bhajans (sacred songs) are attributed to her. SATSAI

Bihari wrote his Satsai in the seventeenth century; it gives us a glimpse of shringar (love) and other rasas.

HINDI LITERATURE Hindi evolved during the Apabhramsa stage between the 7th and 8th centuries A.D. and the 14th C. It was characterized as Veergatha Kala i.e. the age of heroic poetry or the Adi Kala (early period). It was patronised by the Rajput rulers as it glorified chiralry and poetry. The most famous figures from this period were Kabir and Tulsidas. The rise of the Bhakti movement and the use of regional languages by the various saints helped in their growth and development. Hindi literature, with its supra-regional character, attracted Namdev (Marathi) and Guru Nanak (Punjabi) and others to write in Hindi, which by then had developed into a conglomeration of many languages and dialects, and came to be known as an umbrella language. The centrality of Hindi and its vast geographical area was the reason for it. Surdas, Tulsidas and Meera Bai (15th

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to 16th Century A.D.) point to the great heights of Vaishnavite lyricism achieved by Hindi. We have already covered those under Bhakti poetry. PRITHVIRAJ RASO

It is supposed to be the first book in the Hindi language. It is an account of exploits of Prithviraj Chauhan. It is attributed to Chand Bardai, who according to the text, was a court poet of the king. PADMAVAT

A poem describing the story of the historic siege of Chittor by Alauddin Khilji in 1303 CE who attacked Chittor after hearing of the beauty of Queen Rani Padmini, the wife of king Rawal Ratan Singh. This book was written in Avadhi by Malik Muhammad Jayasi. His other important works are Akhrawat and Akhiri Kalaam.

SULTANATE PERIOD CHACHNAMA (AN UNKNOWN ARABIC WRITERS)

Chach, seems to be a local or dialectical form of the word “Jajja”, which is the Prakrit formof the Sanskrit word “Yayati”. Indian history has known some people who bore the name Jajja, there was one Jajja a brother of Jaypida, the king of Kashmir who revolted and was killed by the latter. Kitab-ul-Hind

This text was composed by Abu Raihan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Bairuni al-Khwarizm. Tarik-i-Yamini or Kitab-ul-Yamini     

It was composed by Utabi (an officer of Mahmud Gajini). It was written in Arabic language. Utabi had a firsthand knowledge of the character and activities of sultan Mahmud and his officers. It gives the story of rise of the Gajni Ghaznavid power under sabuktagin and describes the character and military exploits of Mahmud’s upto 1020 AD. Utabi was ignorant of Indian language and his knowledge of Indian tropography was also very poor. Being an orthodox Sunni Musalman, Utbi applauds the achievements of Mahmud as NASR AMIR UL MOMNIN who carried the banner of Islam to the land of the Idol

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worshippers by the order of Allah and the friends of Khuda committed slaughter of the unfields wherever they went. TARIKH US SABUKTAGIN 

Abul Fazl Baihaqi (1996-1077) was an officer of Sultan Masud the successor of Mahmud of Gazni. He was wrote a ten-volume comprehensive history of the Ghaznavid rulers upto 1059 AD entitled Tarikh-i-Baihaqi or Mujalladad-i-Baihaqi, its component volumes were captioned –

1. Tarikh us Sabuktagin 2. Tajul Futuh (History of Sultan Mahmud) (History of Sultan Masud)

3. Tarikh-i-Masudi

“In his introduction of the tenth volume Baihaqi writes “Historical knowledge can only be obtained with difficulty, rather by traveling round the world and undergoing trouble or searching in trustworthy books and ascertaining the real accurrences from them. It was written in Persian language HASAN NIZAMI – TAJ-UL-MASIR  

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Taj-ul-Masir was composed by Hasan Nizami (the court Historian of Qutubuddin Aibek), it throws light on the history between 1192 and 1206 AD. It medium of expression is a unique mixture of Arabic and Persian language is poetry as well as prose. The book comprises twelve thousand lines of which above seven thousand are in verse, both Arabic and Persian. Taj-ul-Masir is partly history and partly fiction.

ADAB-UL-HERB-WA-SUJAAT 

It was composed by Fakra Mudabbir in 1228, it throws light on war tactics.

Amir Khusro was an iconic figure in the cultural history of the Indian subcontinent. That is why we are dealing with his work separately. AMIR KHUSRO 

He has to his credit about half a dozen historical works including prose chronicles and masnavis (poetic composition) like Qiranus Saadain, Miftahul Futuh, Khazainul Futuh, Dewal Rani Khizer, Nuh Sipher and Tughlaq Nama.

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Four collection of Shaikh Nizamuddin Sufi philosophy and sayings, besides numerous treatises in prose as well as poetry. On theology, philosophy, art, literacy criticism and various cultural themes.

QIRAN US SAADAIN 

Qiran-us-Saadain of Amir Khusrau is an historical Masnavi which gives an eye witness account of the meeting that took place in Oudh between sultan Kaiqubad and his father Bughra Khan, the governor of Bengal.

MIFTAHUL FULUH 

Futuh contains an account of the military campaigns of Jalaluddin Khalji is poetry.

KHAZANIUL FUTUH 

Khazaniul Futuh or Tarikh-i-ilahi is an histrographical composition in prose which describes the conquest and other achievements of Alauddin Khalji. His military campaigns in Deccan have been given in detail. The description of Mangal invasions on India and the strong policy adopted by Alauddin to combat them.

MASNAVI 

The masnavi, entitled Ashiqa or Deval Rani Khizr Khani narrates the romantic story of Khizr Khan, son of Alauddin Khalji and Deval Rani the daughter of Rana Kuran of Gujarat.

NUH SIPIHR 

The poetic composition of Nuh Sipihr deals with the reign of Mubarak Shah Khalji unworthy and incompetent successor of Alauddin Khalji.

TUGHLUQ NAMA 

Tughluq Nama also an historical Masnavi was composed by Amir Khusrau to Commemorate the victory of Ghiasuddin Tughlaq over Khusrau Khan.

In addition to the above, one of the Amir Khusrau compilation entitled “Ijaz-i-Kusravi” is a massive collection of diverse types of document personal letters and treaties written by him to his friend or masters or just to satisfy his literary and intellectual hunger. SULTANATE PERIOD (CONTINUED)

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FIROZE TUGHLUQ’S AUTOBIOGRAPHY 

Sultan Firoze Tughlaq has left a brochure of thirty-two pages in autobiographical writing called Futuhat-i-Firoze Shahi it gives a brief summary of his military campaigns.

AMIR TIMMUR’S AUTOBIOGRAPHY  

Amir Timur – The seourge of God on earth, who took Delhi by storm in 1398-99 has also left an autobiography account of his exploits in the Tuzuk-i-Timuri or Malfuzat-i-Timuri. It is said to have been written originally in Chaghatai (Turki) which was translated into Persian during the reign of Shershah (Shahjahan) by Abu Talib Husaini.

KHWAJAH ABDULLAH MALIK ISAMI 

Isami a scholar and poet of the fourteenth century wrote an historical Masnavi. Futu has Salatin in 1349-50 on the Turkish rule in India from the Ghazanavids to Muhammad Bin Tughlaq.

MIR KHWAND

Mir Khwand was an Arab. He wrote the History of Central Asia entitled – 1. Rauzat us Safa 2. The garden of purity, in two volumes divided into seven books. The works gives a detailed treatment to carrer and achievement of Chengiz Khan, Amir Timur and there descendants. KHONDAMIR  

His original name was Ghiasuddin. He produced a standard work on the history of the Muslim world. Entitled Khulasat-ul-Akhba in his early twenties. After the death of Babar Khondamir was attached to the court of Humayun for whom he wrote a treatise entitled Qanun-i-Humayuni.

MUGHAL HISTORIANS OF EARLY MEDEIVAL INDIA Some contemporary works, primarily related to the Mughal period also throw light on certain aspects of the early medieval history. 1. Tuzuk-i-Baburi 2. Abul Fazl’s Akbar Nama (including Ain-i-Akbari) 2. Badauni’s Muntakhabut Twarikh 4. Tabaquat-i-Akbari of Nizamuddin Ahmad and Tarikhi-Farishta TARIKH-I-SALATIN-I-AFGHANA

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Ahmad Yadgar wrote Tarikh-i-Salatin-i-Afghana or Tarikh-i-Shahi in the last quarter of the sixteenth century. It gives an authentic accountof the Lodhi and the Sur dynasties which is to on all the literary sourcs than available on the subject. It gives a refreshing account of the struggle carried on by the Afghan Princs against Babaur and Humayun for the re-establishment of their Political ascendancy in Hindustan.

TARIKH-I-DAUDI 

Abdullah of Koil (Aligarh) wrote Tarikh-i-Daudi in the time of the Emperor Jahangir (1605-27) it gives a account of the Afghan rulers of India including the Lodhi and the Surs. The book starts with the rise to power of Behlal Lodhi, the first Afghan rulers of India and carries the narrative to the reign of Adil Shah Sur. It contains some interesting stories and of the Sultan, particularly Sikandar Lodhi. About the discipline of history the author writes – “History is not simply information regarding the affairs of Kings who have passed away, it is a science which expands the intellect and furnishes the wise with examples.”

TARIKH-I-KHAN JAHANI 

Khwaja “Niamatullah Haravi” completed Tarikh-i-Khan Jahani in 1613 at Burhanpur during the reign of Jahangir. He was an official histiriographer (Waqiah Navis) of Jahangir till 1608-09. Later on, joined the personal staff of Khan Jahan Lodhi whom he accompanied in the Deccan campaign various Afghan tribes with special to the Lodhis and the Surs who gained political ascendancy in early medieval India.

TARIKH-I-SINDH 

The Tarikh-i-Sindh written by Mir Muhammad Masum of Bhakhar in about 1600 AD during the reign of Akbar. Also known as Tarikh-i-Masumi after its author the book gives the regional history of Sindh. Since its conquests by the Arabs to the time of Akbar.

RIYAZUS SALATIN  

Riyazus Salatin of Gulam Hussain Salim, written by in 1788 outlines the history. Bengal since the invasion of Muhammad Bin Bakhtiyar Khalji to date. Mirat-i-Sikandari of Sikandar Bin Muhammad (completed in 1611), the Mirat-i-Ahmadi of Ali Mohammad Khan (1756-61) and Tarikh-i-Gujarat of Mir Abu Turab Vali.

Book Tabaqat-e-Nasiri

Author Minhaj Siraj

Remarks Mainly on Ghurids and some info on early sultanate

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Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi

Zia-ud-din Barani

Period of Balban to the first six years of Firuz Shah Tughluq

Kitab ur Rehla

Ibn battuta

history of Muhammad Tughluq

Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi.

Yahya bin Ahmad

A detailed account of reign of Mubarak Shah of sayyid dynasty

Tuzk-e Babri/Babur nama

Babur

First written in turkic translated to persian during Akbars time

Humayun Nama Akbarnama and Ain-e Akbari

Gulbadan begum Abul Fazl(15511602)

One of the best works of the period

KINGDOM OF BAHMANI AND NIZAMSHAHI DYNASTY OF AHMADNAGAR 

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The history of the Bahmani Kingdom and that of the Nizamshahi dynasty of Ahmadnagar has been well preserved in Buhan-i-Maasir of Sayyid Ali Tabataba written between 1591-96. The “Tazkirat-ul-Muluk” written by Rafiuddin Shirazi between 1602-12, deals with the history of the Bahmani kingdom and its subsequent offshoot, the state of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golconda, Berar and Bidar. The author was Governor of Bijapur under Sultan Ali Adil Shah II (1557-79). ‘Riyazul Insha’ is a valuable collection of letters, documents and dispatches of Mahmud Gawan. The most celebrated Prime Minsiter of the Bahmani Kingdom.

OTHER REGIONAL LANGUAGES

Language

Writer(Period)

Works

Remarks

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Telgu


Krishnadevaraya

Amukta malyada

allasani pedanna

Manucharitam

Tenali ramakrishna

pandu ranga mahatmyam

Jnaneshwar(1275-96)

Amruthanubav Bhavarh deepika

Extended patronage Vijayanagara rulers

by

Namdev (1270-1350) Marathi

Eknath(1533-1599)

Tukaram 1650)

Earliest marathi works commentaries on Ramayana Greatest Bhakti poet and Bhagawat Purana He was guru of Shivaji

(1598-

Ramdas (1608-81) Language Developed fully after 10th century A.D Rashtrakuta king ‘Nrupatunga’ Kavirajamarga Amoghavarsha I

earliest available kannada literary work(850 C.E)

Pampa, Ponna and Ranna 3 gems literature

Kannada Basava and Akka mahadevi

kannada

leaders of veerashaiva bhakti movement, through their vachanas, a type of poetry

Under Hoysalas(approx 1200C.E) Harishvara

of

girija kalyana

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Raghavanka

Gujrati

Tamil

Harischandra kavya

Narsih Mehto (1414Vaishnava poetry 1481)

The hymn “Vyshnava jan to” is his work

Kambar(12th century)

Kambaramayanam

translation of ramayanam.

Azhvars

Bhakti songs

Vaishnava bhakti saints They were 10or12

Nayanmars

Bhakti poets

Saiva saints About 60 in number

Ezhuthachan

AdhyatmaRamayanam Mahabharatham

Malayalam (evolved by 14th Poonthanam Njanappana century.) Cherusseri ( 1375 - Krishnagadha 1475)

Father of language

valmiki

malayalam

Hymns in Bhakti tradition

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Saraladasa(15th cent) Translated mahabharata

First works literature

Upendra Bhanja

New Era of oriya

Oriya Baidehisha Bilasa Labanyabati

of

MODERN INDIAN LITERATURE The 19th Century Indian Renaissance In almost all the Indian languages, the modern age begins with the first struggle for India’s freedom in 1857, or near that time. The impact of western civilization, the rise of political consciousness, and the change in society could be seen in what was written during that time. Contact with the western world resulted in India’s acceptance of western thought on the one hand, and rejection of it on the other, and resulted in an effort made to revive her ancient glory and Indian consciousness. A large number of writers opted for a synthesis between Indianization and westernization, in their search for a national ideology. All these attitudes were combined to bring about the renaissance in 19th century India. But it was a renaissance in a country which was under foreign domination. So it was not that kind of renaissance which had spread in 14th-15th century Europe, where scientific reasoning, individual freedom and humanism were the dominant characteristics. The Indian renaissance took a different shape, in the context of the Indian race, moment and milieu, and as a result, nationalistic, reformistic and revivalistic thinking found its way into literature, which slowly turned itself into a pan-Indian movement, spearheaded in different parts of the country by renaissance leaders like Raja Rammohan Roy (1772-1833), Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Vivekananda, Madhav Govind Ranade, U.V. Swaminatha Aiyer, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, K.V. Pantulu, Narmada Shankar Lalshankar Dave and othrs. The leaders of the renaissance, in fact, succeeded in instilling nationalistic fervour in the people, and induced in them a desire for social reform and a sentimental yearning for their past glory.

oriya

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The most important literary event that revolutionalised literature was the emergence of literary prose in all the modern Indian languages, and the advent of the printing press, under the patronage of an Englishman, William Carey (1761-1834), at Serampore, Bengal. It is true that Sanskrit and Persian had a vast body of prose, but the necessity for prose in modern Indian languages, for use in administration and higher education, led to the emergence of prose in different languages at the beginning of the modern period. The birth of newspapers and periodicals in Indian languages between 1800 and 1850 was extremely important for the development of prose. and the missionaries of Serampore started off Bengali Journalism on its career. The emergence of prose as a powerful medium brought a kind of change that coincided with the process of modernization. (Source: CCRT) BENGALI LITERATURE

Underwent revival and reform as part of Bengal renaissance towards end 19th century Writer(Period)

Works

Remarks

Michael Madhusudan Dutt

Meghnad Badh Kabya

Among the first writers of modern Bengali

Durgesh nandini(1865) Bankim chandra chattopadhyaya(1838-94)

Anand math (1882)

Vande mataram Considered among the first of nationalist literature movement

Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay

Parineeta, Devdas(both adapted as films),

Wrote on the plight of women and questioned the values of middle class

Pather Dabi (A novel that idolized violent revolution) TaraShankar Bandopadhyay

Dhatri devata, ganadevata and panchagram

Bibhutibhushan Bandopadhyay

pather panchali and aparajita

Kazi Nazrul Islam

National poet of Bangladesh

J.C.bose

depicted village life and its disintegration in his works

Ghazal foundations of science fiction in Bengali

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RABINDRANATH TAGORE (1861-1941) Due to his importance and stature in Indian Freedom Struggle, we are dealing him separately.    

He is son of Debendranath Tagore, a leader of Brahmo Samaj. The nobel prize winning work Gitanjali had introduction by W.B Yeats. Satyajit Ray's films Teen Kanya, Charulata,Ghare Baire are based on tagore's works Amar sonar bangla, National anthem of bangladesh was written in response against partition of bengal in 1905. Tagore list of works

Type

Poems

Novels/short stories

Plays

Memoirs/Autobiography

Work               

Manasi (1890) [The Ideal One] Sonar Tari (1894) [The Golden Boat], Gitanjali (1910) [Song Offerings] Gitimalya (1914) [Wreath of Songs] Balaka (1916) [The Flight of Cranes] Raja (1910) [The King of the Dark Chamber] Dakghar (1912) [The Post Office] Achalayatan (1912) [The Immovable] Muktadhara (1922) [The Waterfall] Raktakarabi (1926) [Red Oleanders] Gora (1910) Ghare-Baire (1916) [The Home and the World] Yogayog (1929) [Crosscurrents] Jivansmriti(1912) Chelebela(1940)

(Source: Noble Prize official site: doesn’t include the whole list) On his works:  Tagore was an immensely versatile poet;  he was also a great short story writer, novelist, playwright, essayist, and composer of songs, as well as a talented painter  His essays, ranged over literature, politics, culture, social change, religious beliefs, philosophical analysis, international relations etc.

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 His outlook was persistently non-sectarian, and his writings show the influence of different parts of the Indian cultural background as well as of the rest of the world.  His works, even when influenced by spirituality and ancient texts is rooted in humanity. (Source: Amartya sen’s essay on Tagore) MODERN HINDI LITERATURE RITIKAL

( For reference : It comes after Bhakti Kal and before Adhunik kal) Ritikal of Hindi literature was between 17th to 19th century in which the Sanskrit rhetorical tradition was emulated on several aspects such as rasa, alankara and nayak-nayika bheda etc. However, it is not true for all, the poets who were bound to the Sanskrit rhetoric were called Riti-Baddha, while those who did not bind were called Riti-mukta. Brajbhasha was used in poetry predominantly. ADHUNIK KAL

The Adhunik kal or the Modern Period in Hindi literature begins in the mid of the 19th century. The Hindi prose evolved in this period. There was a proliferation of the use of Khari boli in poetry in place of Brajbhasha. This period is divided into four phases as follows:

Bharatendu Yug or the Renaissance (1868-1893

Dwivedi Yug (1893-1918)

Chhayavada Yug (19181937)

Contemporary Period (1937 onwards)

BHARTENDU YUG

Bharatendu Harishchandra (1849-1882) is known to have brought in a modern outlook in Hindi literature. He is described as “Father of Modern Hindi Literature”. Other writers of this period include Radhakrishna Das, Pratapnarayan Mishra, Balkrishna Bhatta, Badrinarayan Chaudhuri and Sudhakar Dwivedi

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DWIVEDI YUG

Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi (1868-1938) is regarded as the architect of modern Hindi prose. He brought in the refined prose writing. Dwivedi Yug is known for portrayel of various social, political and economic problems in Hindi Literature. Other important writers of this period are Nathuram Sharma Shankar, Ayodhya Sinha Upadhyay , Maithalisharan Gupt, Ram Naresh Tripathi etc. Maithalisharan Gupt is known to have revived the epic tradition with his long narrative poems such as Jayadrath Vadh, Panchavati, Saket, Yashodhara etc. He also translated Madhusudan Dutt’s Meghnadvadh-kavya into Hindi. CHHAYAVAD (SHADOWISM) KAL

Chhayavad refers to the romantic upsurge in poetry, in which emphasis was laid on aesthetic and romantic subject matter instead of the formalism and didacticism. Important poets of this era include Makhanlal Chaturvedi, Jayashankar Prasad, Surya Kant Tripathi ‘Nirala’, Sumitranandan Pant, Mahadevi Verma and Subhadrakumari Chauhan. ADHUNUK KAL (CONTEMPORARY PERIOD)

The decline of the Chayavad movement saw the emergence of several different styles in Hindi poetry such as Pragativada (progressive poetry), Hridayavad (poetry of passion) and Prayogavad (Poetry of experiments). PRAGATIVADIS

The important poets among the Pragativadis were Bhagvati Charan Varma, Ramdhari Singh Dinkar and Narendra Sharma. HRIDAYAVAD

Important poet of Hridayavad was Harivansh Rai Bachchan, who wrote Madhushala, Madhubala and Madhukalas. PRAYOGAVADA

The experimental movement or Prayogavada was called later the ‘Nai Kavita’. Important poets of this genre included S.H.Vatsyayan ‘Agyeya’, Shivmangal Singh ‘Suman’, Girija Kumar Mathur, Dharamvir Bharati etc. DEVELOPMENT OF HINDI PROSE

The development of Hindi prose has been classified into three periods:

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Early Phase: (1868-1918)


Phase of growth (1918-1937)

Present phase (1938 onwards)

Early Phase: (1868-1918): This includes the prose literature of the Bhartendu and Dwivedi. This phase is known for the development of drama, novel, essay, short story etc. Phase of growth (1918-1937): The period of growth is represented by Premchand, Jayshankar Prasad and Mahadevi Verma. The period of growth is represented by Jayshankar Prasad (Chaya, Akash Deep), Rai Krishna Das and Mahadevi Varma. Munshi Premchand was the greatest of all among the fiction writers. Present phase (1938 onwards). The important fiction writers of the contemporary period include S H Agyeya, Dharamvir Bharati, Rahi Masoom Raza etc. INDIAN ENGLISH LITERATURE Though foreign in its origin, English has been adopted in India as a language of education and literary expression besides being an important medium of communication amongst the people of various regions. The beginning of Indian literature in English is traced to the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th, by which time English education was more or less firmly established in the three major centers of British power in India - Calcutta, Madras and Bombay. RAM MOHAN ROY

Ram Mohan Roy (1774-1833), a social reformist from Bengal who fought for widow remarriage and voting rights for women, was the pioneer of Indian writing in English. Roy insisted that for India to be included among the world's nations, education in English was essential. He, therefore, campaigned for introduction of scientific education in India through the English medium. VARIOUS OTHERS’

Raja Ram Mohan Roy was followed in the early 19th century in Bengal by the poets Henry Derozio and Michael Madhusudan Dutt. Dutt started out writing epic verse in English, but returned to his native Bengali later in life. The poems of Toru Dutt (1855-1876), who died at a tender age of 21, and the novel Rajmohan's Wife by Bankimchandra Chatterjee have received

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academic acceptance as the earliest examples of Indian literature written in English. Toru Dutt not composed poetry in English, but more interestingly, translated French poetry as well. Her best works include Ancient Ballads and Legends of Hindustan. However, the most famous literary figure of this era was Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) (We have already discussed about his works) SAROJINI NAIDU

Sarojini Naidu (1879-1949) was a great poetess whose romanticism charmed readers in India and Europe. Her Golden Threshold (1905) and The Broken Wing (1917) are works of great literary merit. AUROBINDO GOSH

Aurobindo Gosh (1872-1950) was a poet philosopher and sage, for whom poetry was akin to a form of mediation. His epic, Savitri and Life Divine (2 vols.) are outstanding works in English literature. It may be mentioned that most Indian writers in English from the early period hailed from Calcutta, the first stronghold of the British, then other places in the country. The freedom struggle resulted in a revolutionary brand of writing that voiced sentiments against the British Empire. Several political leaders from different parts of the country emerged as literary figures such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpath Rai, Kasturi Ranga Iyengar and T. Prakasham. MAHATMA GANDHI

The English language became a sharp and strong instrument in the hands of Gandhiji, who edited and wrote for papers like 'Young India'and 'Harijan'. He also wrote his autobiography, 'My Experiments with Truth', which is known for its literary flair. JAWAHARLAL NEHRU

Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964) stands out as another prominent leader who excelled in writing prose. He is particularly remembered for his Glimpses of World History, Discovery of India and an Autobiography MULK RAJ ANAND

Mulk Raj Anand (b.1905), best known for his short story 'The Lost Child', has written numerous works of prose, poetry and drama. His novels Coolie (1933), Untouchable (1935) and The Woman and the Cow (1960) reveal his concern for the downtrodden and underprivileged in India.

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R.K. NARAYAN

R.K. Narayan is another prolific figure in Indian English writing. Most of his work, starting from his first novel Swami and Friends (1935) is set in the fictional town of Malgudi, which captures the Indian ethos in its entirety while having a unique identity of its own. Malgudi is perhaps the single most endearing character R.K.Narayan has ever created. Bachelor of Arts (1937), The Financial Expert (1952), The Guide (1959) and Waiting for the Mahatma (1955) are his other popular novels. RAJA RAO

Raja Rao (b.1909), whose novel Kanthapura (1938), set in rural India, established him as a major figure onthe Indian literary scene. Raja Rao's other three novels are The Serpent and the Rope (1960) and The Cat and Shakespeare (1965). NIRAD CHOUDHURI

Nirad Choudhuri (1897-1999) was another internationally renowned Indian writer whose autobiography an Unknown Indian (1951) catapulted him into a celebrated international author. Later novelists like Kamala Markandaya Nectar in a Sieve, Some Inner Fury, A Silence of Desire, Two Virgins, Manohar Malgaonkar’s Distant Drum, Combat of Shadows, The Princes, A Bend in the Ganges, The Devil's Wind, Anita Desai’s Clear Light of Day, The Accompanist, Fire on the Mountain, Games at Twilight, and Nayantara Sehgal captured the spirit of an independent India, struggling to break away from the British and traditional Indian cultures and establish a distinct identity. BHAGAT SINGH

Why I am an Atheist is an essay written by Indian revolutionary Bhagat Singh in 1930 in Lahore Central Jail. The essay was a reply to a religious man who thought Bhagat Singh became an atheist because of his vanity.

Set 5: Block 4 Indian Literature Through Ages - IASbaba

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