Table of Contents Chapter 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

The Stories of Two Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Chemistry and Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 Scientific Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 Scientific Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Chapter 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4

Introduction to Chemistry . . . . . . . . .2

Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

Units of Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 Scientific Notation and Dimensional Analysis . . . . . .31 How reliable are measurements? . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36 Representing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

Chapter 4

Chapter 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4

Matter—Properties and Changes . .54

Properties of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 Changes in Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61 Mixtures of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66 Elements and Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4

The Structure of the Atom . . . . . . . . .86

Early Theories of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87 Subatomic Particles and the Nuclear Atom . . . . . . .92 How Atoms Differ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98 Unstable Nuclei and Radioactive Decay . . . . . . . . . .105

Chapter 5

Electrons in Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116

5.1 Light and Quantized Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117 5.2 Quantum Theory and the Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127 5.3 Electron Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135

Chapter 6

The Periodic Table and Periodic Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150

6.1 Development of the Modern Periodic Table . . . . . . .151 6.2 Classification of the Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159 6.3 Periodic Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163

vi

Chemistry: Matter and Change

Chapter 7

The Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178

7.1 Properties of s-Block Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179 7.2 Properties of p-Block Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186 7.3 Properties of d-Block and f-Block Elements . . . . . . .197

Chapter 8 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4

Forming Chemical Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . The Formation and Nature of Ionic Bonds . Names and Formulas for Ionic Compounds Metallic Bonds and Properties of Metals . .

Chapter 9 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5

Ionic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210 . . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

.211 .215 .221 .228

Covalent Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240

The Covalent Bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241 Naming Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .248 Molecular Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252 Molecular Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259 Electronegativity and Polarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .263

Chapter 10

Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .276

10.1 Reactions and Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .277 10.2 Classifying Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284 10.3 Reactions in Aqueous Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .292

Chapter 11 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5

The Mole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .308

Measuring Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .309 Mass and the Mole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .313 Moles of Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .320 Empirical and Molecular Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . .328 The Formula for a Hydrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .338

Chapter 12 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4

What is stoichiometry? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .353 Stoichiometric Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358 Limiting Reactants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .364 Percent Yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .370

Chapter 13 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4

States of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .384

Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .385 Forces of Attraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .393 Liquids and solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .396 Phase Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404

Chapter 14 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4

Stoichiometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .352

Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .418

The Gas Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .419 The Combined Gas Law and Avogadro’s Principle .428 The Ideal Gas Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .434 Gas Stoichiometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .440


vii

CHAPTER

STUDY GUIDE

Table of Contents Chapter 15 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4

What are solutions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .453 Solution Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .462 Colligative Properties of Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . .471 Heterogeneous Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .476

Chapter 16 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5

Energy and Chemical Change . . . . . .488

Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .489 Heat in Chemical Reactions and Processes . . . . . .496 Thermochemical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .501 Calculating Enthalpy Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .506 Reaction Spontaneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .513

Chapter 17 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4

Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .452

Reaction Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528

A Model for Reaction Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .529 Factors Affecting Reaction Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . .536 Reaction Rate Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .542 Instantaneous Reaction Rates and Reaction Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .546

Chapter 20 Chapter 18

Chemical Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558

18.1 Equilibrium: A State of Dynamic Balance . . . . . . . .559 18.2 Factors Affecting Chemical Equilibrium . . . . . . . . .569 18.3 Using Equilibrium Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .575

20.1 Oxidation and Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .635 20.2 Balancing Redox Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .644 20.3 Half-Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650

Chapter 21 Chapter 19 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4

Acids and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .594

Acids and Bases: An Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . .595 Strengths of Acids and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .602 What is pH? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .608 Neutralization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .617

22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 Chemistry: Matter and Change

Electrochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .662

21.1 Voltaic Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .663 21.2 Types of Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .673 21.3 Electrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .683

Chapter 22

viii

Redox Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .634

Hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .696

Alkanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .697 Cyclic Alkanes and Alkane Properties . . . . . . . . . .706 Alkenes and Alkynes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .711 Isomers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .717 Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Petroleum . . . . . . . . .722

Chapter 23 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5

Substituted Hydrocarbons and Their Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .736

Functional Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .737 Alcohols, Ethers, and Amines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .743 Carbonyl Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .747 Other Reactions of Organic Compounds . . . . . . . .754 Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .761

Chapter 24 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 24.5

Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .775 Carbohydrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .781 Lipids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .784 Nucleic Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .788 Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .792

Chapter 25 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 25.5

Nuclear Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .804

Nuclear Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .805 Radioactive Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .810 Transmutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .815 Fission and Fusion of Atomic Nuclei . . . . . . . . . . .821 Applications and Effects of Nuclear Reactions . . . .827

Chapter 26 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4

The Chemistry of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . .774

Chemistry in the Environment . . . . .840

Earth’s Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .841 Earth’s Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .850 Earth’s Crust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .855 Cycles in the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .858


ix

Table of Contents Appendix A

Supplemental Practice Problems . . . . . . . . . . . .871

Appendix B

Math Handbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887

Math

Handbook

Appendix C

Arithmetic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887 Scientific Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .889 Operations with Scientific Notation . . . . . . . . .891 Square and Cube Root . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .892 Significant Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .893 Solving Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . .897 Dimensional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .900 Unit Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .901 Drawing Line Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .903 Using Line Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .904 Ratios, Fractions, and Percents . . . . . . . . . . . . .907 Operations Involving Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . .909 Logarithms and Antilogarithms . . . . . . . . . . . .910

Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .912 C-1 C-2 C-3 C-4 C-5 C-6 C-7 C-8 C-9 C-10 C-11 C-12

Color Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .912 Symbols and Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .912 SI Prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .913 The Greek Alphabet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .913 Physical Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .913 Properties of Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .914 Electron Configurations of the Elements . . . . .917 Names and Charges of Polyatomic Ions . . . . . .919 Ionization Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .919 Solubility Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .920 Specific Heat Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .921 Molal Freezing-Point Depression and Boiling-Point Elevation Constants . . . . . . . . . .921 C-13 Heat of Formation Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .921

Appendix D

Solutions to Practice Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .922

Appendix E

Try at Home Labs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .952

Glossary/Glosario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .965 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .989 x


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