More "Trans-," Less "National" Author(s): Matthew Frye Jacobson Reviewed work(s): Source: Journal of American Ethnic History, Vol. 25, No. 4, 25th Anniversary Commemorative Issue (Summer, 2006), pp. 74-84 Published by: University of Illinois Press on behalf of the Immigration & Ethnic History Society Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27501744 . Accessed: 07/02/2012 10:43 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact
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More
Less
"Trans-," MATTHEW
"National"
FRYE JACOBSON
the grail of "transnationalism" has a Practi the quest of historical defined inquiry in number of subfields. have quite naturally been near the cen tioners in the area of immigration whatever else any one of ter of this emergent and developing discussion: has us has been up to in our work, our cumulative sketched and project FOR
SEVERAL
YEARS
NOW
labor the history of global routes, transnational transportation and resettlement international flows, frontiers, patterns of population cultural and inter-continental sort, every diasporas, political including or even daily border and seasonal trans-oceanic family arrangements, indexed
field by definition. Ours is a "transnational" and re-crossings. crossings so in its orientation national Odd, then, that for so long it has also been For immigration studies in the era of as and its pervasive sensibilities. is the gum from the sidewalk the nation-state "transnationalism," can never quite seem to scrape from our shoes. Iwas introduced to im Like almost everyone of roughly my generation, fabulous epic, The Uprooted, history through Oscar Handlin's migration I thought to write a history of "Once and its famous introductory remark, that the immigrants were Then I discovered in America. the immigrants a from which it has taken American history."1 This is gorgeous formulation, cendant that we
career for having written to recover. I owe Handlin my whole remains one of the most such a vivid, inspiring book, and The Uprooted some beautiful and impressive volumes on my shelf, however problematic have turned out to be upon further review. But in of its central contentions so firmly as American history of immigration situating the transnational us decades
in lashing the subject so securely excep (if tacitly) to American history, in such a way that itmight itself in and tionalism, immigration positioning a more complicated the very thing occluding become history of the peo in the three of these tendencies compressed pling of North America?all were American "the helped to es history"?Handlin immigrants phrase, the field has only un from which framework tablish a durable nationalist transna If there is something inherently emerged. evenly and haltingly from some tional suggested by his prototypical Every migrant journeying as The winds Handlin's still unnamed pre-modern up Epic Story village, the American People. that Made of the Great Migrations
75
Jacobson
forces have exerted a further but strangely conspiring contending, one was the culture's wider romance with "im pull into this national orbit: as a nationalist motif during the very years that the academic migration" to take wing; the other, a distinctly national ori subfield was beginning Two
on the part of a generation in Handlin's wake, of social historians were for whom acts of research and interpretation also acts of committed
entation
as a Civil Rights and post-Civil Rights ethos infused the field. citizenship, it was quite natural to lose sight of the "trans" Under this twin regime, the imperatives of the looming "national." One of the early markers of an emergent popular nationalism organized 1958 around the myths and icons of immigration was John F. Kennedy's somewhere
behind
salvo in a years-long de the opening volume, A Nation of Immigrants, of U.S. bate over the liberalization Immigration, immigration policy. to far hori had "infused the nation with a commitment thought Kennedy, and new frontiers, and thereby kept the pioneer spirit of American of the of and alive and strong."2 In life, spirit hope, always equality a "nation of centuries-old core, immigrants," Kennedy's Anglo-Saxon zons
greatness had been periodically reinvigorated by impressive waves of ar rivals who, though non-Anglo-Saxon, still recognized and reaffirmed that a common and national greatness, re-imagined destiny. During his senti mental
re before his death, Kennedy just months "When my great-grandfather left here to become a cooper in East he carried nothing but a strong religious faith and a strong desire
"return"
marked,
Boston, for liberty.
to Ireland
at the Albatross Com left, I would be working romance the road."3 Kennedy's the which language captures for years to come?his public discussion relationship proprietary If he hadn't
across
pany colored
as an his depiction of migration ("my great-grandfather"); almost of fortitude carried saga ("he incomprehensible
to immigration individualized nothing...");
and his juxtaposition
of himself
with his ancestor as a way of the left. . ."), thereby proving
("if he hadn't upward mobility of both "America" and "my great-grandfather." greatness was an romanticism. scarcely idiosyncratic Kennedy's
marking
decades nation's station
this was
to become
a common?even
In the ensuing of the framing?conception
and its political population at Ellis Island was reclaimed
genius. The abandoned immigration from oblivion and added to the Na no less than in 1965, eventually becoming
tional Park Service's holdings a jewel in that crown; lavish public and state-sponsored celebrations of in and the centennial the nation's bicentennial 1976 marked immigration to im devoted in 1986; and a national museum of the Statue of Liberty migration
was opened
on Ellis
Island
in the early
1990s, ultimately
hosting
76
Journal of American Ethnic History / Summer 2006
more
and tourists each day than the number of immigrant arrivals In at the height of the turn-of-the-century it had processed migration. found in her survey schoolchildren's too, as Frances Fitzgerald textbooks, pilgrims
of American had ceased " cans.' The
educational materials, by the latter 1960s "most of the texts" as distinct "to talk about from 'us Ameri 'the immigrants'
to Fitzgerald, was that "We are a "new orthodoxy," according are more nation of immigrants."4 Indeed, today schoolchildren likely to context of immi and slavery in the conceptual learn about colonization
first immigrants"; ("America's gration than they are to learn about immigration
"America's
forced
in the conceptual
immigrants") context of settler
democracy.
in this itera There are several important ideological moves performed of Ellis Island and in the public sanctification tion of the nation, including In the first in the vernacular public rituals of Ellis Island remembrance. as of the nation?of stand stance, the immigrants proof of the goodness all the places in the world, they came here looking for peace and freedom, are ex themselves and they found it. In the next instance, the immigrants were of the and alted for their hardiness, wit, deserving courage?they erasures in in other words. And finally, by the powerful nation's greatness, are the the immigrants of immigrants" paradigm, defined as If America is is its nation the nation, just solely by immigrants. com the immigrants the "freedom" which sought, so, finally, is America tremendous The solely of these seekers and their descendants. posed herent
in the "nation
scientist Bon power of the mythic immigrant is threefold, writes political to reassure workers of the image of the immigrant "functions nie Honig: that rarely delivers on in an economy of upward mobility the possibility an obscures the "hegemonic that promise"; immigrant America" myth of less flattering "foundings" and finally the immigrant annexation); choiceworthiness."5 the nation's
Such
remembrance
in the articulation
(conquest, provides
and slavery, expansion, narrative of "a nationalist
of national
two identity conflates vs. immi movement
as geographical themes: immigration quite distinct It is only as and civic incorporation. legal standing, citizenship, gration like "a nation of immigrants"? the first sense that this is really anything
in
from JFK's New Ross, Alex came from somewhere, whether everybody or across the land bridge from Asia. But this mean Haley's Kinte-Kundah, to it comes when the second, more profound meaning ing has eclipsed as a of this "nation immi To celebrate the body politic. comprehending the eyes of the incoming Eu grants," to construct "America" solely through a line around the exclusive to not redraw is only ropean steerage passenger,
77
Jacobson
"we" of "we the people," but it is to do so while under the aegis of commonly held "liberty." clusivity
white
also claiming
in
chains,
Steerage,
whatever.
As
a discipline, of course, immigration conservatism. this fundamental
or mimic
never did imbibe historiography But it has mattered greatly that was becoming an such article of
this image of a "nation of immigrants" popular faith during the field's formative years; and by and large the field fundamental did accept, at least for a time, this conceit's cordoning off of at the contiguous that?from European immigration "immigration"?and histories
that went
(One symptom own History's
into this staggeringly diverse body politic in the making. of this, ready at hand, is the Journal of American Ethnic to African American, rather tenuous relationship Asian
and Latino/a Studies in its first decade of publication; followed American, in favor of in resolution of the "race" question only later by a seeming clusion in the early 1990s, and a steadily increasing non-European pres ence
in the feature
articles
ever
since. Most
dramatic
has been
the intel
in the JAEH lectual bridge to African American Studies, whose presence was a mere three articles in the 1980s, and upwards of 20 in the 1990s.6) To write against the nationalism of the "nation of immigrants" has not the "trans" from the "national," either. As a civil always meant rescuing and the field during the take-off rights post-civil rights ethos infused recov decade of the 1970s, at stake was the national narrative itself?the to the lights of the multi ery of a past that would be "usable" according and the democratic values of the (New Left) genera vocality baby-boom is not an immigration tion. Shelly Fisher Fishkin specialist, but she speaks of the impulse toward scholarly eloquently lated projects of Black Studies, immigration American itself was
inclusion
which
drove
the re
studies, ethnic studies, Native and and Asian American Latino/a Studies, Studies, and which a moment. the product of very particular historical Reflecting
a black Yale student in the upon her own interest inWarner McGuinn, she had discovered in her researches of Mark Twain, Fishkin 1880s whom I knew that 'people like us' (people pos "Like Warner McGuinn, writes, sessing the 'wrong' skin color or gender or religion or ethnicity) had some how not really been a part of the story our culture told about who and what . . . it was. and training, yet disempowered Empowered by our education our awareness American culture marginalized that mainstream people by our energies into and traditions we respected, we responded by channeling changing segregating
the structures
themselves?desegregating the American literary canon." As Jews,
American she continues
cities,
de
(though
Journal of American Ethnic History
78
/ Summer 2006
and races), here she might have included all the other "wrong" ethnicities "we know what it's like to be written out of the story."7 This development, then, which we might properly call "the nationalism of the of un-suppressed pasts," begins with the postwar democratization In an apocalyptic academy. speech before the American Histor in 1962, Carl Bridenbaugh ical Association decried the professional impact in the postwar period, par of the university of the shifting demographics
American
of our ticularly as a result of the GI Bill. "Many of the young practitioners he worried, "are products of craft, and those who are still apprentices," or foreign origins, and their emotions lower middle-class frequently get in the way
of historical
third-generation numbers himself
reconstructions."8
ethnics
These
included many Levine (who,
second-
and
like Fishkin, "the 'wrong' parts of Europe."9 And at the the time of his hand-wringing
from what Lawrence
them) calls of. By kind Bridenbaugh right, the the universalism of the early Cold War was already on of AHA, podium out inAmerican the founding of the Immigration its way historiography: of History Society was but a stone's throw away (1965), and a generation from all the wrong places was just over the horizon. social historians among
was
of the growth of "ethnic" the quickest, most dramatic measures Among in first full is the and "immigration" the post-civil rights decade history two state-of-the-field contrast between essays by Rudolph Vecoli, written Di In the first, "Ethnicity: A Neglected in 1970 and 1979, respectively. in Power's remarked Black Vecoli mension of American upon History," fluence
on student
nority" history. A revealed that only
in "mi and the unmet demand for courses outlooks, in one hundred U.S. colleges survey of course offerings some to study American offered opportunity thirty-eight
in in general social history; nineteen twenty courses (including diversity in and four four in Native American American African Studies; Studies; The other sixty-two offered no courses at all.10 At colleges immigration). the United
had produced only on immigration between 1893 and 1965 (or less than two per year), just over half of which had ap peared since World War Two. This paucity was due in large part, Vecoli ideol and pervasive grip of the assimilationist thought, to the "powerful the graduate one hundred
reported Vecoli, doctoral twenty-seven level,
States
dissertations
referred to as "the blight of assimilationist ideology"? ogy"?elsewhere "Because of their expectations inAmerican that assimilation scholarship. was to be swift and irresistible, historians and sociologists have looked for mainte rather than than cultural rather acculturation continuity, change nance.
Since
ethnicity
was
thought
to be evanescent,
itwas not considered
79
Jacobson
studying."11 He could discern a few signs that "the long winter of to an end," including AHA president John is coming neglect of ethnicity truer and multivalued, Fairbank's because multicultural, per urging "a . . ,"12But for the most part, the picture was bleak. spective. In an issue of American in 1979, however, Vecoli Studies International
worth
amost startling reversal: "we are [now] inundated by a vir tual flood of books, articles, and dissertations dealing with the roles of race, and religion inAmerican nationality, history."13 Vecoli cited over seventy could announce
that appeared in the 1970s, many search for 'roots' among Ameri
studies of immigration five book-length to "the contemporary traceable directly
in addition cans," including studies of politics, religion, labor, and mobility, or to works devoted to particular groups to particular locales.14 More the Vecoli demonstrated still, pace of significantly astonishing in research and the "infrastructure of facilities includ resources," change Centers and Collections," ing "Research tions," "Reference Tools," and "Historical " he wrote, "Thanks to the 'new pluralism,'
"Microfilm Societies
and Reprint Edi and Publications."
"the National
Endowment
for
the Humanities,
the Ethnic Heritage Studies Program..., the National His and Records Commission, and torical Publications private foundations, have all provided generous ethnic communities funding for building col reference research." Publishing lections, preparing tools, and sponsoring like Arno
houses thousand
volumes"
and R & E Research pertaining like
documents government formist tracts like How ology
like E. A. Ross's
had reprinted "several of immigration, including re Commission Report,
Associates
to the history the Dillingham
the Other Half Lives, and treatises Traits Transplanted.
in early
soci
Old World
was a had discovered, the new pluralism 1970s, Vecoli was now in the industries' interest; apparatus position; knowledge was poised to know itself anew.15 By 1979 it was clear that and America
By vested
the latter
the basic paradigm of American as a pervasive at accepted historiography. generally Ethnicity all areas of American life." This break with the tribute which affected of the past "presages a rewriting of the history of the United scholarship in its in and multi-lingual States which will be multi-ethnic, multi-racial, "a pluralistic
perspective
has transformed has been
(or better yet, experiences)"16 experience terpretation of the American into this nationalist Part of the gravitational orbit, as I essentially pull concerns of many the schol for by the citizenly have said, is accounted on ars involved, and the extent to which immigration?like scholarship that inAfrican
American
Studies
or Ethnic
Studies?invariably
represents
Journal of American Ethnic History
80
/ Summer 2006
an engagement in a civic politics and a discourse of diversity, inclusion, social equity, and the like, which itself is inflected or even fully exclusion, ver bounded by the logic of the nation-form. of assimilation Questions sus cultural
retention which dominated the field for some twenty years, for are the from culture's broader discussion of inseparable example, finally in the wake of desegregation, Black Power, and unity and "difference" was I in Even when school renewed immigration. graduate through the an enormous what took the of in field could 1990s, place early proportion on the one up in the shorthand contrast between The Uprooted on the hand and John Bodnar's of dissent, The Transplanted, synthesis other. This was a scholarly venture whose rooting in the cultural politics of the moment was quite deep.
be summed
The nism
same might be said of the rich intersection of second-wave wrote with studies. "Women's ambitions," immigration
femi Gerda
Lerner, had long been "lowered by the absence of heroines."17 The femi nist pursuit of "heroines" was a wellspring for the growing field of immi as the and the historical?the eth the personal, political, gration history, nic revival
in the work of myriad resurgence?converged and Paula Hyman, Gabaccia, Sydney Stahl Weinberg,
and the feminist
scholars
like Donna
Elizabeth
Ewen.
"Before as
1965 most
traditional
American
historians
to be solved
while lib by assimilation, 'problems' as wrote erals emphasized the ethnic American victim...," discrimination, the rise of the 'new Maxine Seller. "In the late 1960s and 1970s, however, viewed
immigrants
and the revival of the women's movement changed the way that ethnicity' . ." Seller's own of scholars the many history immigration. approached "im Women contribution, (1994), self-consciously positioned Immigrant as subjects rather than as objects and ethnic life as an en migrant women . . feature of the American social landscape."18 during (and valuable). to such "presentism" in his I should emphasize that I have no objection is no jeremiad or lament: however committed we are to our historical we can only an it right" in addressing questions, "getting swer the questions that it occurs to us to ask in the first place, after all. In a creature of its own his this respect historiography itself is inescapably torical work?this
over the five decades historiography toricity. The contours of immigration since Handlin's capture quite richly the major con originary musings concern and debate, from the Cold tours of precisely American political and steady dissensus on the meaning War's consensus of "America," to the new pluralism of the Civil Rights era (ramping up to "multiculturalism"), to the renewed to the resurgence of common of feminism, investigation a in im the and the face of massive influx of post-1965 ality public sphere
81
Jacobson
on the and nationally bounded These presentist engagements migrants. are worth reviewing, not because historians part of immigration they are to be condemned, but because the key to the field's future may reside in ar as conscious as possible the terms under which it ticulating and making with
its past. recent historiographie must it interest in "transnationalism" self be seen as a creature of history: as the forces of "globalization" have is reckoning The most
reached
critical mass, elastic tionalization of production,
labor frontiers, porous borders, the interna the awesome mobility of capital, and the as a guarantor of citi the abdication?of the nation-state
weakening?or zens' rights vis-?-vis
?ransnational aggregations of corporate power, have sense the of national that earlier gen extinguished proprietary belonging erations regarded as a birthright. Call it Homeland Insecurity. Too, peo to who the call their local bank phone ple pick up only to find themselves on the line with about
someone
in India might and "nation." Although
"place" this moment when
on a new domestic
begin it may
some new ideas to develop seem strange to say so at
of the state are being gathered and deployed the NSA's black sites, GTMO, "unitary executive," there has been a creeping surveillance?still realization both the powers
scale?the
the citizenry and across the disciplines that more and more of the and economic realms where peoples now inhabit social, political, the psychic salience and the real and symbolic power of the "nation" are
among world's
of States itself, the increasing privatization losing ground. In the United civil engineering in some com functions, police and security functions munities?and and various military abroad, for that matter?corrections, functions and accountability from the represent shifts in implementation public to the private that are reshaping transfer of wealth from public coffers
our world. More
than merely
a vast
to private, corporate pockets, these on the very concept of the "commonweal." The nation-form does not seem ready to wither and die, mind, as, for one intense remain among the most nationalist thing, opposition movements reliable political creations generated by trans-, anti-, or "post"-national de
constitute
an assault
But recent trends do suggest that we reexamine the relation velopments. structures and of between "multinational" "national," "transnational," ship The wealth and power and adjust our historiographie lenses accordingly. Institute units
of Policy in the world,
Studies
reports
that of the hundred largest economic are countries, while the other fifty-one is approximately of Wal-Mart equiva
only forty-nine are corporations. The "economy" and Poland. The lent to that of Sweden; GM and Ford outstrip Denmark over account two of all hundred for world's one-quarter top corporations
Journal of American Ethnic History
82
economic
activity a greater aggregate the largest minus
the globe; than the combined
around
ten. As
this essay of $36 billion, nations.19
yearly profits for 2005 over 135 of the world's
/ Summer 2006
and this top two hundred represents economies of every country on earth goes to press, ExxonMobil reports a sum larger than the economies
of
is not to suggest that we do away with the our in nation-state inquiries. But as a horizon, perhaps yes. As corporate elephants dance among the national chickens, and as powerful and weak states alike increasingly assume the role of junior and political arrange economic trans-, or inter-national partners inmulti-, a us new to ask invite about our circumstances ments, range of questions That's
transnational.
This
as a unit of consideration
past. Our tendency to fracture the immigration "globalizing" even the lines is not the only?nor national delineated story along neatly most productive?way of looking at it. "Globalization" first of all, itself, incrementally
in the making since around the time that Columbus sailed, not just as one might gather from much of the the advent of the MasterCard,
has been since
to tell us about literature. The contours of migration history have much these processes that goes far beyond the narrow nationalism of celebrating on one a the hand and the condemning "choiceworthiness" stratified civic life on the other. Trends new clarity a contest
of the past decade or so allow us to glimpse with of sorts between the nation-state and the multinational
and power which in fact have corporation, contending modes of aggregation on the social, economic, been in contention for some time. It is precisely and political terrain of this contention that many have been living their lives. This would be a version of the "transnational" well worth capturing. I fear, is less developed My prescription, areas where we might outline three broad
than my diagnosis; turn our attention.
but Iwould
once and to immigration: we need to dismantle Restoring emigration desti for all the exceptionalist notion of the United States as a migratory mere to restore the nation, and, getting beyond fully global and lip service, of which U.S. immigration represents but one systemic flows of migration, to in the wake of the May Laws, part. The Jews who fled Czarist Russia and Buenos Aires, as well as take a case, chose Cape Town, Johannesburg, the landed throughout New York and Chicago, just as Chinese migrants to the United to the Caribbean, States from Peru, toMexico, Americas, and Canada. A gaze that is fixed upon the totality of such migrations?not but a more comprehen in comparative ghetto formation, just an exercise treatment of outmigration in the context of itself and in sive and expansive the context
of other,
contemporaneous
outmigrations
from other parts of
83
Jacobson
as "usable pasts" go, render a great deal that is worth the world?might, about the social, and cultural knowing long-range reordering of economic, on a life the planet. This would also entail closer analysis of the lands the but left behind, and not just before the period of great migration, migrants after as well?the social and political changes wrought on the sending coun try by massive emigration. the nation with continent as the unit of organization: Replacing at the conceptual level if not at the narrative, a "global cross-roads" of North American
history would
a more
at least model
treatment
of promise satisfying and annexation, conquest, imperialism expansion, slavery/emancipation, as contiguous, and immigration and closely contingent concurrent, pro cesses. Such a conceptual in useful scheme?though certainly considering
of citizenship and their consequences for a social as we to turn wish should inward?would "national," sphere imagined nonetheless of orient us toward the longer-term, more glacial development structures
the juridical
a global system some areas have been marked in which for "improve others others for still for colonization. A shift in em ment," depletion, to the from national of inter-con relations the phasis polities global power tinental system?from civil rights to human rights?might fill us in on a dimension
of "the
and experience," replete with complex so of and that has patterns contradictory oppression privilege, far gone mostly in our researches. uncharted as a significant force the corporation in the lives of indi Recovering immigrant
sometimes
is astonish the corporation viduals, ethnic groups, regions, and nations: areas or most in from of absent the American ingly history scholarship no some level at and studies is Studies, immigration although exception, we all know that ConAgra or Wal-Mart or Tyson's can shape immigrant lives as profoundly
as can Homeland
Security. The corporate story behind these their labor practices of immigration history?the elephants, their of and and the regional their conduct, increasing mobility impact the trend toward the increased internationalization the mi of production, dance
is a story that grants they lure and also the residents they displace?here we have not yet begun to come to grips with. a dim, beginning This is perhaps less a call to action than merely on and of the my part already recognition inventory important changes to take place in the field. I take my cue from the vibrancy and beginning flux of current
from the breaking down scholarly practice, and especially in and the increasing intellectual traffic among specialists African and Latino/a Asian American Studies, immigration,
of old barriers European
Journal of American Ethnic History / Summer 2006
84
and Ethnic Studies. My students Studies, Studies, Indigenous or the profound insularities unbelievable find would fully today quaint I was beginning these fields when that characterized my training just on how far twenty years ago. This in itself provides a poignant perspective
American
in their turn, over
push us,
they may
the next
twenty.
NOTES The
author
to thank Alicia
wishes
Schmidt
as this essay
and criticisms
their advice
took
Camacho,
Lui,
Mary
Pitti
and Stephen
for
shape.
that Made The Epic Story of the Great Migrations The Uprooted: 3. 1951), (Boston, People A Nation 2. John F. Kennedy, 1964), 99-100. (1958; New York, of Immigrants Nation 10. 3. Kennedy, Immigrants, of in the Twentieth America Schoolbooks Revised: 4. Frances Century History Fitzgerald, 82. (Boston, 1979), 21,63, 1. Oscar
Handlin,
the American
5. Bonnie The
6.
and the Foreigner NJ, 2001), 74, (Princeton, Democracy shifted from roughly feature articles in the JAEH's bias
Honig,
European
to 4:3 in the next (1991-2000).
first decade (1981-1990) 7.
Fisher
Shelley Fishkin,
Fisher
Fishkin,
People
of
1996), 61,62. (Madison, WI, 8. Gary Nash, Charlotte Wars
and
Dream:
the Teaching
The
"Objectivity
75, 84. 5:2 in its
of
in Jeffrey
the Story," "Changing Scholars the Book: Thirty Crabtree, the Past
Question"
and Shelly Rubin-Dorsky on Their Jewish Identity
Reflect
on Trial: Culture and Ross Dunn, eds., History That Noble 54; Peter Novick, 1997), (New York, Historical and the American Profession (Cambridge,
1988), 339^0.
MA,
100. Mind The Opening Levine, 1997), (Boston, of the American in of American A Dimension 10. Rudolph Vecoli, History," Neglected "Ethnicity: Herbert ed., The State of American Bass, 1970), 71-72. History (Chicago, "The Contadini of 11. Vecoli, Vecoli, Dimension," 75, 80. Rudolph "Neglected Journal A Critique of The Uprooted," 51, no. 3 (1964): History of American Chicago: 404-17. 9. Lawrence
Dimension," 83, 84. of American "The Resurgence Vecoli, International Studies 1979): 46. (Winter, 14. Vecoli, 55, 54-62. "Resurgence," 12. Vecoli, 13. Rudolph
"Neglected
15. Vecoli, 16. Vecoli,
"Resurgence,"
gle for Appleby, 1994), World
National Lynn 291-302;
"Resurgence," Standards
2002),
American
History,"
47-48. p. 62. See in American
and Margaret Hunt, Eric Foner, Who
(New York,
Immigration
149-66;
Symcox,
Classrooms
76-80; 2002), (New York, Joyce the Truth about History (New York, in a Changing the Past Rethinking
Telling Jacoby, Owns History? Jonathan
Zimmerman,
Whose
The Strug
also Linda
Whose
History?
America?
Culture
Wars
in thePublic Schools (Cambridge,MA, 2002). Matters: (New York, Life and Thought Why History Women Seller, 1994), 6,7; Donna Immigrant (Albany, NY, Women Studies Ground: Common of Immigrant Multidisciplinar?
17. Gerda
Lerner,
18. Maxine
Seeking States CT, 1992). (Westport, 19. http://www.ips-dc.org/reports/top200.htm; p. Al.
New
York
Times,
1998),
210.
ed., Gabaccia, in the United
January
31,
2006,
